Kathy T Human Bio Blog Fall 156-084324

Self and Unit Evaluation

2008-12-12T16:55:00.000-08:00

1-What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?

A- My first aspect of this unit assignments that I am most proud of is my Species Lab. I did a good job and also had fun thinking of and identifying all of the "species" I run into each day. The second aspect I am proud of are my compendiums! NOT the pictures I posted with them (I rushed and did not put much effort into collecting them for this unit), but just the fact that I got the compendiums complete, as I am quite tired of doing them this semester! The third aspect I am proud of is my Fetal Development Lab and write up...I did a good job and learned alot! Once again, what a miracle life truly is as I have learned time and time again this semster in ways I never gave credit to before in my life!!

******I FORGOT THE THING I AM THE MOST PROUD OF MR. FROLICH...DID YOU SEE MY QUIZ GRADES???? I GOT HIGH GRADES THIS TIME AND ALOT LESS TEST ANXIETY!!!!! I ACTUALLY GOT 90% ON MY SECOND QUIZ!!!! WOO-HOO!!

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?

A- I am not submitting a blog post for "Who should Reproduce (10 point possible) or am I submitting "Feedback" on the NING network (5 points possible) so I am counting that as one area I could improve. My second area I know I could have done better on unit four was my blog posts (meaning the pictures and the layout...not meaning the actual compendium information and work) for my Compendiums...BUT I am honestly tired of the finickiness of the blog itself at times and in my favor I think I spent ALMOST as long attempting to make it space correctly and not re-arrange itself, as I almost spent writing the actual compendium! It got very frustrating at times for this final unit! :-(

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?

A- an A !!!

4. How could I perform better in the next unit?

A- I would spend more time with the web-links to learn outside information and differing opinions.

At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?

A- During the species lab when I was trying to take a picture of the Arizona Spur- Throat Grass Hopper.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?

A-When the blog would not respond.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?

A- When Mr' Frolich stated at the very beginning of this unit that it would be somewhat easier than the previous unit loads!!! Thank you!

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?

A-None I can think of.

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)

A- My ability on my tests was quite awesome and esteem boosting! The big thing to me this unit was the fact that I TRULY enjoyed the subject of evolution/development of man and even more the small segment on fossils was right up my alley! I love earth sciences because rocks and minerals are one of my greatest passions so I soaked up all of those parts greedily.

Unit Four:Online Lab/Human Population Demographics

2008-12-12T16:09:00.000-08:00

World population 2050 compared to Nambia population 2050

World population 2050 compared to Germany population 2050

1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?

A- My high fertility rate country is Nambia and the fertility rate is 3.20 children.

2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?

A- My low fertility rate country is Germany and the fertility rate is 1.40 children.

3. The initial demographic "shape" of your high fertility rate country should have been a pyramid, with high population in young age groups. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth?

A- This is because when the number is high in the fertility age bracket the population numbers increase in the "young" category because of the increased births. The future is affected in thepopulation statistics when tracking the "young" age bracket into middle age, old age, and death with increased numbers in all areas. The later future numbers for the "fertility rate" may decrease as the demographic area becomes enlarged with the prior population aging and the strain it can put on an area.

4. Your low fertility rate country might have had a more oval-shaped curve with high population in middle age groups. This is especially exaggerated if the fertility rate is below 2.00. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middle-aged people.

A- Low fertility rate in a country will lead to less births which then increases the middle sector, (which is middle age) to become proportionally higher simply because of the lack of new population.

5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle-aged and older people in the population and write ten quick "brain-storm" descriptors for you think it would be like (Prescott, Arizona?). Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.To get full credit for this lab (20 points), you just have to post the two screen shots and answer all the questions.

A-Scenerio with middle to old age population- 1-slower paced 2-politically conservative/ moderate 3- structured 4-predictible 5- lacking diversity in cultural differences 6- regulated 7- cautious8- unflexible 9-financially fixed 10- lacking individuality and the freedom to be controversial. 11- somewhat stagnant or possibly resistant to changing.

A- Scenerio with lots of children in the population- 1- fast paced life style 2- spontaneous 3-risk taking 4- liberal thinking 5- social program oriented 6- "green oriented" for the planet Earth 7- out spoke 8- cultural diversified and open to alternative life style. 9- community expansion minded 10- high achievement oriented 11- self propelled

UnitFour Lab Project: List of Species

2008-12-08T18:50:00.000-08:00

Unit 4 Lab Project: List of Species

1-(a) Homo sapiens (b) my husband/his name is Tony c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ We have co-evolved for certain, as we are both of the same species. I think homo sapiens will continue to co-exist and co-evolve until the end of life as we know it here on earth.

my husband and I at our wedding on November 6 2004

2-(a) Cervus Canadensis (b) elk jerky c) symbiotic or mutualism (d) domesticated/ The reason I said both symbiotic and mutualism is because it seems that humans have the advantage over the elk, especially with the lowered population numbers of the elk in the wild. Humans hunt elk and also elk are used as livestock for human consumption. I think co-evolution will continue, however, the elk species will become more dependent for their survival on humans as time goes on . 3- (a) Geococcyx Californianus (b) Road Runner c) symbiotic or mutualism
(d) unsure whether this is domesticated. The reason I question whether it is wild or domesticated is because the road runner, although considered wild, has adapted to human population, traffic, and less land to survive on. I think humans and this species will continue to co-evolve and that because of the road runners ability to adapt and because of its speed, habits, and nature, it will survive for a very long time.

4- (a) Felis Catus or Felis Silvestriscatus (b) house cat/our cat, her name is Wickett Renae Tootle c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think humans have been evolving with cats for thousands of years. I think over time cats have become more ‘domesticated” but I think that cats could also go back to complete predatory/hunters and survive very well without humans.

Me and our cat Wickett Renae Tootle

5- (a) Salvia Greatae (b) Lavender Sage c) symbiotic/mutualistic (d) domesticated/ I think over time this type of plant has become domesticated in some strains (varieties) Humans have genetically adapted this plant in some ways to enhance some things possibly, such as fragrance or color, or watering needs. I think this plant and humans will continue to co-evolve and that they have a mutually beneficial relat

lavendar sage I have planted in back yard

6- (a) Rhizopus Nigerians (b) Bread mold c) Parasitic or mutualism (d) domesticated in a laboratory for medicinal use and Not domesticated (predation) when growing on bread and making it inedible./I think humans have been co-evolving with molds for a long time and that possibly by accident a medicinal use (antibiotics) was discovered. I think that mold and humans will continue to co-evolve together and that this may even be a symbiotic relationship as opposed to a parasitic one.

7- (a) Bostaurus (b) heavy whipping cream from a dairy cow c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think humans have been co-evolving with cows/cattle for quite awhile now and that because cows can be such a source of food (both from meat and also the milk products they produce) and clothing, and possible even parts of shelter, tools, other resources, they have been quite valued. I see some problems with the “over-domestication” of these animals in some ways. Things such as Mad Cow Disease and other illnesses may be caused by the over taking of this species by man for their needs.

8- (a) Nepeta Cataria (b) Catnip c) symbiotic (d) domesticated for some strains (varieties)/ I imagine that some varieties have been altered in some ways for agricultural purposes. I think that this plant along with many others would be able to adapt back to the wild varieties fairly quickly if man no longer was here to manipulate the species.

9- (a) Melanoplus Arizonae Scudder, S.H. 1878 (b) Arizona Spur- Throat Grass Hopper
c) Predation? Mutualism? (d) undomesticated/ I think that the grass hopper definitely benefits off human population because the grass hopper is well fed, due to ample food and also water, because man needs agriculture goods and this is what these insects live off of. I think they have co-evolved with humans and possibly even prospered due to the increase human population. I also think humans could be deadly to the grass hopper with toxic chemicals and altering the ecosystems and not ensuring biodiversity in certain areas.

A grass hopper in my back yard

10- (a) Actinomyces Viscosus (b) plaque c) parasitic (d) domesticated/ I think humans have been co-evolving with many types of organisms on and in their bodies over a very long period of time. I think that with many of the items that we use on and in our bodies to smell better, to look better, and to clean with, we are actually inviting some parasitic organisms as well as detouring others. I think this relationship will continue between the two species.

Me brushing my teeth and removing dental plaque before going to bed

11- (a) Gallus Domesticus (b) chicken breasts baked c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ Humans and chickens have co-evolved for quite awhile. Humans use chickens in many ways: they are a livestock, used for their eggs, and used for their feathers possibly. I think the relationship will continue because humans meet the chickens needs and they in turn meet human needs. I think that because of some of our domestication practices, we have caused illness and maladaptions to the chicken as a species and this in turn has created some illnesses toward humans.

12- (a) Gallus Domesticus (b) eggs c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ Humans and chickens have co-evolved for quite awhile. Humans use chickens in many ways: they are a livestock, used for their eggs, and used for their feathers possibly. I think the relationship will continue because humans meet the chickens needs and they in turn meet human needs. I think that because of some of our domestication practices, we have caused illness and maladaptions to the chicken as a species and this in turn has created some illnesses toward humans.

A hard boiled egg I am going to eat

13- (a) HBV-Human Hepatitus B Virus (b) Hep B c) parasitic (d) domesticated/ I think humans have evolved with this virus and that because humans live in such close proximity, this viral disease has actually become more common and has thrived in recent history. I think this virus will continue to do well, especially in certain pockets of society, such as IV drug users and unprotected sexual practices and also by people who engage with numerous sexual partners. In the big picture this virus may die out as the human populations dies off that engage in the unsafe practices.

14- (a) Glycinemax (L.) merr. (b) soy nuts c) symbiotic or mutualism (d) domesticated/ I think that soy beans have become quite domesticated with the population growth of humans. I think that certain traits and characteristics are bred into strains of this plant species to make it more usable, practical, and marketable for humans and I also think this will continue.

Soy nuts to eat for a healthhy snack

15- (a) Valeriana sp. (b) Valerian Root Tea c) symbiotic/mutualism (d) domesticated and also some left in the world as wild/ So far I have not used the term “commensal” in regard to community relationships so this may be one of my examples that should fit into this category. I think humans have interacted with herbs for many hundreds and thousands of years as they have found medicinal as well as nutritional uses for these type of plants. I believe that humans will continue to co-evolve with this species and also will continue to adapt it to human needs and desires.

A cup of brewed valerian root tea to help sleep come more easily.

16- (a) Sus Scrofa (b) Pig/ Bacon c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think the livestock pig has become quite domesticated in the past few hundred years. I think humans will continue to make pigs part of the livestock food chain for consumption and that it is a symbiotic relationship that serves both species well. I also think because of genetic adaptations imposed by humans on the livestock, that pigs have been genetically compromised in many ways to go back and live in an undomesticated environment.

Bacon I am going to cook to eat.

17- (a) Mentha Spicato (b) Spearmint c) mutualism or symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think this herb, like many others, has a variety of strains that have become completely domesticated, however, I also think that without human interaction, this herb would be able to return to non-domestication fairly quick.

18- (a) Canis Lupus Familiaris (b) Neighbor’s Dog /Houdini c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think Houdini has become dependent on humans to take care of his almost every need. I believe that our neighbors dog would actually die without human assistance due to certain health issues and also his old age. In the wild world, Houdini would not be able to survive due to Natural Selection.

Houdini is our neighbor's dog who is quite old and also has diabetes and arthritis disease.

19- (a) Cinnamomum Verum (b) Cinnamon c) mutualism or symbiotic (d) some varieties are completely domesticated and others are still probably wild in the world./ I think that cinnamon as a spice has become domesticated by humans over the past couple of thousand years. Humans and this spice, along with many others, have co-evolved and have benefited from each other. I think spices have been a food product as well as a bartering tool and status symbol for humans so they have served multi purposes for people.

20- (a) Cucurbitaceous (b) pumpkin (field?) c) mutualism or symbiotic (d) most varieties are completely domesticated by humans but some strains may still be wild. Humans and this species have co-evolved for hundreds of years and this relationship will continue for a long time I think. Pumpkins can be used as food for their fruit meat as well as nutritional value can be found in their seeds. I think another advantage to the symbiotic relationship is that planting of the seeds is fairly easy and also the seeds would go back to the earth simply by the process of decomposition in the fields as well as with purposeful planting of the crops.

A pumpkin we made into our jack-o-lantern and then roasted the seeds to eat.

Unit Four/Online Lab-Embronic and Fetal Development

2008-11-23T17:57:00.000-08:00

EMBRONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT ONLINE LAB

LIST OF TEN SIGNIFICANT EVENTS DURING EMBRYONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENTFOR EACH EVENT:

(1)--quick description of what the event is

(2)--when (hour, week, day or month) during development when it occurs

(3)--why you think it is significant--image or photo of that event or stage for five of the events

www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html (web link provided for lab)

(1) Oocyte Fertilized/ Conception occurs-1 day post ovulation-
Penetration by one sperm into the oocyte’s tough membrane, within hours fertilization is complete and the zygote is created with the entire set of genetic make-up complete! This is significant because it is the miracle of life. This is how it ALL begins!

(2) Heart division into two chambers-6 week old fetus-
The baby’s heart beats twice as fast as an adult heart beat and it is starting to divide into two chambers. This is significant because the heart is starting to develop in ways that will last throughout the human lifetime (two chambers in the heart: the left and right ventricles).

www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html (web link provided for lab)

(3) Upper limb buds appear- 25-27 days post-ovulation (first trimester)
During this time the face and neck are starting to take shape and also the eye and ear will begin to form. During this stage the beginning cells of the liver also begin which is the first piece of the digestive system that is yet to come. The significance of this stage is that the limb buds are the beginning of the arms/hands/fingers of the human body.

(4) Hind brain is beginning to develop- 37-42 days (first trimester) The brain is beginning to become defined in the various regions. The hind brain, which is responsible for regulating heart regulation, breathing and muscle movements, begins to develop. The significance of this part of development is the brain and body functions are becoming synchronized to perform functions both voluntarily and involuntarily.

www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html (web link provided for lab)

(5) Spontaneous movement begins-51 - 53 days post-ovulation- Tiny muscles and nerves are connected to the brain and the fetus is able to make spontaneous movements. The significance is that this is the first stage where the unborn fetus can move independently.

(6) End of the embryonic period- 56-60 days post-ovulation- The embryo has now reached the stage of development that it is a fetus. The significance is that development of the ears, eyes, taste buds, teeth, upper palate, intestines, and limbs is well advanced. The “tail” is now gone. The external genitals are still not developed well.

(7) Basic brain structure in place-61-68 days post-ovulation- The brain can rapidly grow from this point on as the brain structure is complete in the fetus. The significance of this stage is that the brain parts are formed now and will continue to grow within the fetus. Another significant event during this same stage is that the facial features of the fetus are distinguishable.

www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html (web link provided for lab)

(8) Sexual organs are clearly visible- 14 week post-ovulation- At this stage the fetus’ sex organs, whether male or female, can be easily seen. Toenails are also starting to grow from the nail beds during this stage.

(9) Finger and toe prints swirls are formed-16 week post-ovulation- The significance of this stage is that the set of prints that makes this individual different than every other individual ever born are starting to be formed on each finger/thumb pad, as well as on the toe pads.

www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html (web link provided for lab)

(10) Immune system begins to develop-32 weeks post-ovulation- At this stage the fetus’ immune system is beginning to develop its defense against germs, virus, and bacteria. The significance of this stage is that the defenses are already being put into place that will help protect the baby after birth. Another fact I find significant during this stage is that the eyes of the fetus can remain open during times of alertness and they shut during times of sleep.

Compendium Review Unit Four/Major Topic Two:Human Landscapes/Chapters 22,23,and 24

2008-11-16T20:28:00.001-08:00

Chapter 22/Human Evolution

22.1 Origin of Life

22.2 Biological Evolution

22.3 Classification of Humans

22.4 Evolution of Hominids

22.5 Evolution of Humans

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/infoCenter.do?isbn=0072986867

22.1 Origins of Life

A fundamental principle of biology states, “All living things are made of cells and that every cell

comes from a preexisting cell.” The question presented then is, “Where and how did the very

first living thing come into existence then?” Possibly the answer is that a slow chemical process

change occurred and produced the first cell -protocell/(chemical evolution)

The Solar System developed approximately 4.6 BYA. The Earth has atmosphere. The

atmosphere we have today is quite different than the first atmosphere due to gases and water.

Also heat played a huge role in the atmosphere from long ago.

Primitive Earth had the following energy sources:

1- Volcanoes

2- Meteorites

3- Radioactive Isotopes

4- Lightening

5- Ultra-violet Radiation

Macromolecules- RNA first hypotheses/ states that only macromolecule RNA was necessary to lead to formation of the very first cells.

Protein First Hypotheses/ suggests that amino acids collected together when exposed to dry heat forming portioned then returned to water to form microspheres, which have many of the same properties as cells.

The Protocell- could metabolize but could not reproduce-fermenter because of no free oxygen-if lipids and microspheres become associated a lipid-protein membrane occurs.

The True Cell- a true cell can reproduce and DNA replicates before cell division occurs. Proteins called, “Enzymatics” perform the replication process.

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/infoCenter.do?isbn=0072986867

22.2 Biological Evolution

(1)Prokarytic cells are the first true simple cells of life. A feature of the prokaryotic cell is that they lack a nucleus.

(2)Next came the Eukaryotic Cells which do have a nucleus.

(3)Next came multicellularity along with other kingdoms.

Each of these types have their own evolutionary history starting with the very first cell.

Biological Evolution is the process of a species changing through time.

All living things have a common history of origin.

Adaptation is the species ability to survive and reproduce in its environment.

Adaptation is the explanation why there are so many types of living organisms….a particular species adapts to its unique environment.

Common Descent explains the sameness of a species to its ancestors.

Fossils prove evolution because they are the actual remnants of that particular species.

Fossils are 10,000 years or older- up to billions of years old.

“Traces” are remnants or evidence of past life. Traces can be trails, footprints, burrows, worm casts, or petrified droppings. Pieces of bone, plant impressions, species trapped in tree resins are all examples of fossils. Fossils are commonly found in sedimentary stone.

Sedimentation is the process of particle accumulation that forms layering of the Earth’s crust. A layer of sedimentation is called a strata.

When a species dies, it decomposes or is scavenged, so the remains are typically the hard encasement or bone material, which becomes imbedded in the sedimentary stone layer and is then layered over the top of.

Paleontology is the scientific study and discovery of fossils. The term. “Fossil Record” refers to the history of life recorded by fossils. Species have evolved through time so the fossil remains we find are different than the species is today.

Scientifically we know today that life has evolved from the simple to the complex.
Fossil records show the following progression:

1- unicellular prokaryotes

2- unicellular eukaryotes

3-multicultural eukaryotes

Transitional fossils have the characteristics of two species.

Whales are believed to have terrestrial ancestry. The presence of legs in Ambulocetus species

leads to the hypothesis of terrestrial mammals leading to the whale species.

The origins of mammals is well documented through fossilization of species.

(figure 22.4) page 471- The Archaeopteryx had combo of reptilian/bird characteristics.

Biogeographical Evidence studies the distribution of plants and animals in different places

throughout the world.( It is known as “Common Descent”) It hypothesis’ that specific species of

life took root in certain geographical areas and then spread out- but only were able to spread as

far as continent divisions allowed them to.

Anatomical evidence also supports common descent theory: it shows an explanation of

similarities anatomically and uses reason to support the theory.

Biochemical Evidence shows that all living organisms use the same identical basic biochemical

molecules, including DNA.

Intelligent Design: evolution is a theory based in science and evidence to support the theory.

Religious beliefs do not fit into the evolution theory but instead are based on faith. Faith based

creation is founded on creation started from God.

Natural Selection is a Darwinian theory used to describe a mechanism for adaptation. This

theory claims and has supportive evidence that states, “a species becomes suited to its

environment.”

Critical elements of natural selection are:

Variation- Individuals vary in physical appearance and can pass from generation to generation.

Competition for Limited Resources- Because of limited resources and competition for them

generational numbers remain about the same for particular species.

Adaptation- Advantageous traits are much more likely to be passed down generationally

because these particular traits can capture more of the resources.

Natural selection accounts for great diversity of life. Each and every organism is adapted and

designed for its particular way of life.

22.3 Classifications of Humans

Organisms are classified biologically by their evolutionary relatedness. “Binomial Name” of

organism gives it genus and also its species.

Same Domain refers to only general characteristics in common BUT those in the same “genus”

have A LOT of characteristics in common.

The three domain system used to classify (common ancestors)

(1) Bacteria

(2) Archaea

(3) Eukarya..

This classification shows that Archaea are closer to Eukarya than Bacteria.

DNA data is more commonly used and relied on today for species identification.

With DNA category classification scientists have determined that 2bya the domain Eukarya,

which consisted of a membrane-bound nucleus was the beginning of the category that humans

are in today (species Homo sapiens)

Primates are adapted to an arboreal life, which means living in trees.

Two sub-orders of primates are prosimians (lemurs tarsiers) and the anthropoids (monkeys,

apes, and humans)

Primate limbs are mobile and hand and feet have five digits.

Binocular Vision: snout is short so the eyes can move to the front of the head. Stereoscopic Vision

(depth perception is another characteristic, three different cone cells to differentiate the colors,

greens, blues, and reds.

Large Complex Brains are another characteristic of primaries.

Reduced Reproductive Rate: one birth at a time is normal in primates.

Human skeleton/Chimpanzee skeleton

Human = center spine exit

Ape= rear spine exit

Human= s-shaped spine

Ape= slight curved spine

Human= bowl shaped pelvis

Ape= Longer, narrow pelvis

Human= Inward at knees femur

Ape= Angle out femur

Human= Can hold weight on knees

Ape= Cannot hold much weight on knees

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/infoCenter.do?isbn=0072986867

22.4 Evolution of Humanoids

The evolutionary tree shows that all primates originated from one common ancestor.

Humans and apes have been developing for approximately 7 mya.

Lineage is when to lines diverge from a common ancestor.

Bipedal posture is a feature that is hominid: another hominid feature is the face shape and the

brain size. There have been times when two or more hominids existed at the same time: such as

the Australopithecus robustus and the boisel and the Homo habillis.

Homo Erectus fossils are found in Africa, Asia, and Europe (1.9-.3 MYA) First to use fire.

Homosapiens (modern humans) evolved from erectus.

evolution diagram from a google search from the internet

The Multiregional Continuity Hypothesis states that the development of homo sapiens in various

parts of the world was very similar. This theory is disputed by those who believe the “Out of

Africa Hypothesis” which claims that homo sapiens only evolved out of erectus from Africa and

THEN migrated to Europe and Asia.

The out of Africa hypothesis suggests that human beings today are much more characteristically

the same.

Neanderthals (H. neandertalenis) massive brow ridges and their nose, jaw, and teeth protruded.

Thought to have been taken over (supplanted) by homo sapiens. Had large brains, lived in caves,

culturally advanced.

Cro-Magnons- Oldest fossils to be labeled homo-sapiens-

Human Variation consist of what we call today ethnicity. These are believed to have evolved due to adaptations to local environmental conditions.

A modern DNA study finds that modern man has a common ancestry link between all world populations approximately one million years ago. This finding concludes that we as humans are closely related to one another.

Bioethical Focus -page 487

Passing on the culture from one generation to the next generation is called Bio-cultural Evolution

and this type of evolution is not dependent on genetics but to adaptation to one’s environment.

It began with homo habillis who we believe were tool makers; Farming is thought to have begun

about 10,000 years ago by the ancestors of today; Population increases in the society then may

have influenced the necessity of more agriculture to meet the needs of the people. The industrial

revolution began in the 18th century and cultural adaptations were continued to be passed down

to the generations of more recent history: Much of the progress and adaptations are harming

and even causing extinction to many number of species because they can not adapt to the

changes in the environment quickly enough. It is possible that extinction could be the result for

the human species if we do not learn how to and become willing to work within the biosphere

better.

Chapter 23/ Global Ecology and Human Interferences

23.1 The Nature of Ecosystems

23.2 Energy Flow

23.3 Global Biochemical Cycles

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/infoCenter.do?isbn=0072986867

23.1 The Nature of Ecosystems

The biosphere is where organisms are found on Earth. The entire biosphere can be considered a giant Ecosystem.

“Abiotic” components of an ecosystem are non-living.

“Biotic” components are living and can be categorized by their food source.

Autotrophs- inorganic nutrients and outside energy source are the only requirements.

Heterotrophs- need organic nutrient source. They are considered “consumers”.

Herbivores are animals that graze.

Csrnivores eat meat.

Omnivores eat both meat and also eat plants.

Detritus feeders- organisms that feed on detritus (decomposing particles of organic matter).
Niche- means the role of an organism.

Energy flow and chemical cycling= Solar energy (sun) produces energy which helps trees and

plant life (producers) grow which feeds the animals (consumers) which then is put back into the system by waste and decomposition which then turns into inorganic nutrient pool which then has full cycled and replenishes the nutrients for the “producers” plants and trees.

23.2 Energy Flow

There are interconnecting paths of energy represented in an ecosystems such as a forest.

Forest has a food web that has trophic relationships (feeding).

Diagrams that show single path of energy flow are known as food chains.

Example: (Grazing Food Chain)= leaves=caterpillars=birds=hawks

Detrital Food Chain=Detritus=earthworms=shrews

Ecological Pyramids

The length of a food chain is determined by the loss of energy between trophic levels.

The flow of energy with large losses between successive trophic levels is depicted as an ecological

pyramid. Energy losses between trophics result in pyramids based on organism numbers.

Biomass is the number of organisms multiplied by the weight of organic matter within one

organism.

http://highermagraw.hill.com draw
powerpoint for chapter

23.3 Global Biochemical Cycles

All organisms require both organic and inorganic materials.

Pathway for chemicals to circulate through ecosystems involve living (biotic) and non-living (geological/abiotic) components. These are known as biogeochemical cycles and can consist of gaseous material and sedimentary. A reservoir is an example of a chemical cycling.

The Water Cycle consists of evaporation, vaporized ware rises and falls as precipitation,
Water can also evaporated from plants (transpiration) gravity also eventually returns all fresh water to the sea, run off is water flowing directly into nearby streams, ground water can also be located in between layers of rock called aquifers.

The Carbon Cycle consist of organic matter (living and dead) to make up the reservoirs. Fossil fuels are the 300 mya remains of organic materials such as coal, oil, and natural gas.

CO2 along with other type gasses are being emitted because of human activities. Global warming and the Green house effect are two negative by products of human activity in our biosphere.

The Nitrogen Cycle

Plants cannot make use of nitrogen and nitrogen makes up approximately 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere.
Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of nitrogen into ammonium, which CAN be used by plants. Some cyan bacteria and free-living bacteria assist in this fixation process.
Some of the bacteria that help this process occur live in nodules on legume roots, such as beans, peas, and clover. They accomplish this by making available to host plants the nitrogen so they can produce the proteins and nucleic acids.
Production of nitrates during nitrogen cycle is called nitrification. It can occur by nitrogen gas turning into nitrate, from ammonium, nitrate producing bacteria and also assimilation (the process of plants taking up ammonia and nitrate from soil to use ions to make proteins and nucleic acids.

Denitrification is the process of conversion of nitrate back to nitrogen gas, which enters the atmosphere. Human activity interferes with the transfer rate significantly and poses a negative affect on our biosphere.

The Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus that has been trapped in oceanic sediments move onto land after a geological upheaval.

Slow weathering of rock puts up phosphate ions into the soil. Some of the phosphate material absorbs into the plant life that grows in the soil and then it is introduced into the animal life that ingests the plant life. The material is absorbed into their teeth and bone and takes a very long period of time to decompose back into the Earth. Some of the phosphate runs into the aquatic system. The phosphate that is then found in marine sediments does NOT become available to producers on land again until there is a geological upheaval.

Humans alter the ecosystem of the biosphere by mining, which boosts the supply of phosphates (fertilizers and production of detergents are two of the main culprits in the negative impact cycle)

Chapter 24/ Human Population, Planetary Resources, and Conservation

24.1 Human Population Growth

24.2 Human Use of Resources and Pollution

24.3 Biodiversity

24.4 Working Toward a Sustainable Society

24.1 Human Population Growth

Exponential growth refers to the number of reproducing humans increasing and then reproducing offspring.

Growth rate refers to the comparison of the number of births a year as compared to the number of deaths.

The Carrying Capacity refers to the maximum number of population that an environment can support.

MDC’s means the “More Developed Countries’ and the LDC’s refers to the “Less Developed Countries”.

MDC’s have experienced moderate growth in populations since the 1950’s. The USA has a higher than average population increase due to immigration and the baby boom between 1947 and 1964. There are still a large number of females within the child bearing age brackets.

LDC’s have lower death rates after WWII because of modern medicine. The birth rates in some countries is extremely high (5 offspring) and these two factors contribute greatly to the LDC’s high population numbers.

Replacement Population refers to when a couple reproduce only two off spring and no more.

24.2 Human Use of Resources and Pollution

Non-renewable resources are those that are limited in supply, such as, land, fossil fuels, and minerals.

Renewable resources can naturally be replenished such as, water, solar energy, harvested plants and animals for food.

A side effect of resource consumption is pollution, which is an undesirable alteration of the environment. Beach erosion is in part caused by humans living within close distance of the waters edge.

Desertification is the conversion of semiarid land to desert like conditions. It can be caused by humans allowing over grazing of lands.

Deforestation means the removal of trees. Soil loses its fertility and nutrients because of clearing of the natural foliage and trees.

Biodiversity can be loosed due to deforestation as humans often consume a food source from the deforested area that is now inhabited and the ecosystem that the animal lives within.

Water

Some areas of the USA and other places, exceed the renewable supply of water available and must then build dams or use aquifer systems to meet the needs of the populations in those areas.
Groundwater depletion is causing the settling of soil as it dries out, this is called subsidence. Withdrawal of groundwater can cause sink holes.

Saltwater intrusion is another consequence of aquifers. When the water table becomes low enough what usually was replenished by freshwater is then filled with saltwater. Saltwater intrusion reduces the available supply of freshwater along the coasts.

By 2025 2/3 of the world population may be living in areas that do not have enough fresh water supply to sustain the population. Countries and their governments must plan ahead and develop incentives for the people to work toward better water management and conservation measures.

Food

Food comes from three activities (1) growing crops (2) raising animals (3)fishing in the seas. Modern farming practices have increased the available food supply considerably but have also added some harmful practices as well:

(1) The planting of only a few (limited0 genetic varieties.
(2) Heavy use of fertilizers
(3) Generous irrigation
(4) Excessive fuel consumption

Intercropping is the farming practice of planting two or more different crops.
Soil degradation is occurring world wide. This means that the organic rich top soil is being eroded away.

Genetic Engineering: by altering plant genes genetically we may be causing more harm than good by the creation of super strain plants that actually draw more from the biosphere than they offset by the high yields and the amount of people that can be fed.

Domestic Livestock can add to the drain on resources and in high protein diet areas, such as the USA, much of the agricultural land is used for raising of livestock which uses up many of the non-renewable resources.

Energy

(Non-renewable Sources)
Nuclear power and also fossil fuel are both non-renewable energy sources and they make up approximately 81% of the types of energy we currently use to meet our energy needs.

Fossil fuels include: oil, natural gas, coal- they are derivatives of compressed remains of plants and animals that died thousands of years ago.

A person in an MDC uses in one day the amount of energy that A person in an LDC uses in a years time!

The burning of fossil fuels since 1850 has increase the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere considerably 9from 280 ppm up to 350 ppm) Greenhouse gasses include methane gas, carbon dioxide and other gasses released from the burning of fossil fuels. The Green house effect raises the temperature, which raises the water level because of the glacial melting.

Renewable Energy Sources- * include the following-

Hydropower- use falling water to convert to electricity through hydro-electric plants/ often used with large dams.

Geothermal- steam from energy conversion due to uranium, thorium, radium, and plutonium going through radioactive decay in the Earth.

Wind- wind power is believed to be used a lot more in the near future as an energy source/does not require as much land as some alternatives so this may be a better energy supplier.

Solar- Diffuse energy that must be collected, converted, and stored. Passive solar energy refers to such things as when a houses’ window faces the sun and the sunlight/energy enter the home and is stored .

Minerals are non-renewable raw materials that can be mined. These include fossil fuels, non-metallic raw materials (sand, gravel, phosphate). Many heavy metals are harmful to humans: such as, lead, mercury, arsenic, copper.

Surface mining of the Earth’s crust is one of the most negative types of activities that humans perform on the planet. The land becomes void of normal vegetation and also the rain run off then takes toxic waste into the streams and rivers and next the water supply.

Hazardous wastes refers to the build up of minerals which then leads to toxic/harmful levels being present to affect animals and humans in a variety of ways.

24.3 Biodiversity

“Variety of life on the planet Earth”

The loss of biodiversity is something that we face everyday. This includes habitat loss, alien species, pollution, over-exploitation, disease; which all lead to decline in natural species of specific area.

For a healthy balance in a particular ecosystem biodiversity is very important. This refers to the various species in an ecosystem all filling a particular function and niche in the system.

Medicines are an important by-product of biodiversity. Most of our drugs originated in living organisms.

Agriculture is highly affected by biodiversity and when certain crops fail for specific reasons more crops can be drawn from in the natural world of crops because there is a balance and diversity to the various kinds.

Bioethical Focus page 528

Discusses the intricate ecosystems in the coral reefs, which are often thought of as “underwater rain forests”. The ethical issue brought up in the article is the use of cyanide to catch the marine life found within the reefs. The ethical issue raised is the harmful effects of the cyanide to the ocean fish life, the actual changes in the reef and also to the humans who use the poison to catch the fish. Cyanide changes the entire environment and due to electron changes in the mitochondrial electrical impulse system, the entire eco system is damaged and altered for possibly thousands of years.

Biodiversity is a highly important resource. It is not just important for an individual species but when looking at the big picture it is even more important for the survival and adaptation of the entire ecosystem and even larger than that for the entire biosphere (earth).

Waste disposal is important, as is the availability of fresh water, as is the prevention of soil erosion, and the regulation of the climate helps shade and cool so the use of fans and air-

conditioning can be used less. What this all means is the human race overall must come to the awareness of the entire system working together in the biochemical cycles of nature so we do not run out of non-renewable resources and also we do not create more damage than can be overcome by the natural order of our planet.

24.4 Working Toward a Sustainable Society

In an ideal world we would always be able to provide the same amount of what we need and want as we do today as well as balancing biodiversity .

For a continuation of a sustainable society we must focus on not depleting our resources and also make efforts toward resource preservation. The LDC’s of the world create environmental

burdens and at the same time the MDC’s do the exact same thing.
Focusing on a natural ecosystem will be advantageous to us today as well as those generations of the future. We need to make use of our renewable resources and recycle what we use. Agriculture, business, preservation, pest management, mass transit, and energy efficiency are all ways we can address and help our environment.

Compendium Review Unit Four/ Major Topic One: Reproduction/ Chapters 16-17

2008-11-16T20:25:00.000-08:00

Chapter 16/Reproductive System

16.1 Human Life Cycle

16.2 Male Reproductive 16.3 Female Reproductive System

16.4 Female Hormone Levels

16.5 Control of Reproduction

16.6 Sexually Transmitted Disease

16.1 Human Life Cycle

Male and females have quite different reproductive systems.

Sexual maturity is called puberty, it occurs in females a earlier, usually between ages 11-13 and in males, between 14-16.

Reproductive organs are called genitals.

Males-

(1) sperm is produced in testes

(2) sperm are transported in ducts and exit the male through the penis

(3)the penis delivers sperm to a females vagina

(4) testes produce sex hormones for masculization.

Females-

(1) eggs are produced within ovaries

(2)eggs are transported in uterine tubes to the uterus

(3) the vagina receives sperm from the male, transports menstrual flow out of the body, is the birth canal

(4) Fertilized eggs develop in the uterus, breasts produce milk for the newborn after birth.

(5) ovaries produce sex hormones for feminization and pregnancy.

Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis is “duplication division” of the 46 chromosomes within the nucleus.

Mitosis takes place in the life cycle of a human during times of growth and repair.

Meiosis is a type of cell division in humans that is referred to as “reduction division”.

It is very specific in its occurrence, in males it only takes place during the production of sperm and in females during production of eggs.

Meiosis reduces the chromosome count of 46 (diploid) in half to 23 (haploid).

In meiosis there are two cell divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II.

The small flagellated sperm is specialized to carry chromosome to the egg. The egg is specialized in its waiting for sperm to bring chromosomes and also it provides cytoplasm as well as chromosomes.

The zygote ends up with 46 chromosomes because the sperm provides 23 and the egg provides 23.

Meiosis is the reason why the newly formed “zygote” ends up with 46 total chromosomes:

without meiosis, the zygote would end up with 92 chromosomes, 46 from the sperm and 46 from the egg.

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16.2 Male Reproductive System

The primary sex organs in the male are the paired testes (gonads) suspended in sacs of the scrotum

The following are the male reproductive organs:

Testes- produce sperm/sex hormones

Epididymides-ducts for sperm storage and maturation

Vasa deferentia- conduct and store sperm

Seminal vesicles- contributes nutrients and fluid to semen

Prostrate gland- contributes fluid to semen

Urethra- conducts sperm

Bulbourethral glands- contribute mucus- containing fluid to semen

Penis- organ for sexual intercourse

Seminal fluid is made of ingredients that have functions toward reproduction.

Orgasm in Males:

Penis has long shaft with enlarged tip called glans penis, which is covered by foreskin, unless circumcision has taken place. Circumcision is the surgical removal of the foreskin, typically done when the male is still an infant.

During sexual arousal autonomic nerves release nitric oxide,NO. This stimulus leads to CGMP

production, next the smooth muscle walls relax, which leads to the erectile tissues to fill with

blood. An erection occurs because the blood vessels that carry blood away are compressed.

Erectile dysfunction occurs when the expansion of the penis is not enough to compress the veins.

Contractions expelling seminal fluid are part of male orgasm. Orgasm includes psychological and

physiological satisfaction. Refractory period is the time after orgasm when the penis returns to

normal size and there is a loss of sexual arousal. As a male ages the refractory period lengthens.

During ejaculation there may be up to 400 million sperm in semen.

The hypothalamus plays a vital role in sexual function because it secretes and regulates hormones.

Testosterone is the main male sexual hormone. It is responsible for normal development,

secondary sexual characteristics and greater muscular development.

16.3 Female Reproductive System

The female sexual organs include:

Ovaries-which produce eggs and hormones

Oviducts- which conduct eggs, location of fertilization (uterine or fallopian tubes)

Uterus (womb)- which houses the developing fetus

Cervix- is the opening to the uterus

Vagina- which receives the penis, serves as the birth canal and is the exit for menstrual flow.

Eggs are stored in the ovaries and when an egg is released it travels down the fallopian tube

toward the uterus. The egg can live approximately 6-24 hours and unless it becomes fertilized

(usually in the fallopian tube) by a sperm, then it does not become implanted in the uterine wall.

Implantation occurs when an egg becomes fertilized and then a zygote is formed.

An egg is usually released once a month, fertilization occurs in the oviduct (fallopian tube) and

development takes place in the uterus.

External female genitals are called the vulva. Included are two folds of skin called the labia

majora, labia minora, mons pubis, and clitoris, which is the female equivalent to the male penis,

as it is the organ of sexual arousal.

Orgasms in Females

Sexual stimulation occurs and the labia minora, vaginal wall and clitoris become engorged with

blood-the vagina expands and elongates, the vagina becomes lubricated. Orgasm occurs at

height of sexual response and the walls of the uterus contract rhythmically. Females require no

refractory (resting time) and can experience multiple orgasms in one sexual encounter.

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16.4 Female Hormone Levels

Follicles are inside the ovary and each follicle contains an immature egg. Only a small number of the follicles are ever used during the reproductive years of a female because typically only one egg is released every month.

The ovarian cycle is as follows:

1-Primary follicle contains oocyte and produces estrogen

2-Secondary follicle contains secondary oocyte and produces estrogen and some progesterone

3-Graafian develops

4- Ovulation-secondary oocyte released

5-Corpus Luteum makes progesterone and some estrogen

6-Corpus Luteum degenerates

The hypothalamus controls the hormones responsible for sexual function in the female just like in the male.

Estrogen is responsible for secondary sex characteristics.

Estrogen and progesterone affect the uterus and breast development and also milk production.

The pelvic girdle is typically wider in females.

Menopause os when the ovarian cycle ceases in a woman’s life. Menstruation becomes irregular and then ceases.

Twenty-eight cycles of the Uterine Cycle are as follows:

Days 1-5/Low level of estrogen and progesterone

Days 6-13/increase production of estrogen

(Days 1-13) FSH secretion begins/follicle maturation occurs/estrogen secretion is prominent

Day 14/ ovulation usually occurs

(Day 14) LH spike occurs

Days 15-28/increase production of progesterone

(Day 15-28) LH secretion continues/corpus luteum forms/progesterone secretion is prominent.

Fertilization and Pregnancy

If an egg becomes fertilized with a sperm then the endometrium will receive the zygote and it becomes implanted in the lining.

The placenta sustains the developing embryo and later the fetus. It produces HCG/In time the placenta produces progesterone and some estrogen.

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16.5 Control of Reproduction

Birth control is used to prevent pregnancies.

Abstinence is the best way and simply means to abstain from sex. Some other effective birth

control methods are: IUD, hormone skin patch, Depo-Provera, diaphragm, female condom, Male condom, and oral contraception.

The morning after pill is an emergency contraceptive and consists of four hormones, it blocks the progesterone receptor proteins and causes the bodily loss of the implanted embryo.

Infertility means the failure to achieve pregnancy.

Low sperm count or abnormal sperm can be cause, female obesity can cause.

Artificial Insemination can be used to implant sperm in female to impregnate egg.

In Vitro Fertilization can be used to conceive in laboratory and then implant within the female uterus.

Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer can be used and is more successful than IVF.

Surrogate Mothers, paid women usually to carry the parents sperm and egg.

16.6 Sexually Transmitted Disease

HIV- sexually transmitted disease (STD) AIDS is the last stage of the HIV virus.
38.6 million people are thought to be infected with HIV worldwide and 25 million people have died from AIDS.

HIV compromises the persons immune system and it is typically an opportunistic infection that kills the person, not the actual virus. There is no cure for AIDS but there is an antiretroviral therapy that can stop HIV reproduction.

Genital Warts-caused by HPV- often carriers do not show signs- genital warts are associated with cervical cancer and at this time there is a vaccine for warts which is exciting for the potential help with cervical cancer.

Genital Herpes- caused by the herpes simplex virus-Type I associated with cold sores/ Type II associated with genital herpes. Type II usually occurs during adulthood- Can cause neurological disorders in newborns and even lead to death.

Hepatitis- infects the liver, can lead to liver failure, cancer, and death.

There are 6 virus’ that cause hepatitis (A,B,C,D,E,G)

STD’s Caused by Bacteria

These types of sexually transmitted diseases can be cured with antibiotics.

Chlamydia/ infection of the lower reproductive tract.

Gonorrhea- in men a urethral discharge of thick, greenish-yellow. In men and women it leads to

pelvic inflammatory disease, can cause sterility in males.

Syphilis- has three stages, in third stage will cause death. When the bacteria crosses the placenta

it will cause blindness in the newborn.

Health focus on page 339
This article focuses on ways to avoid contracting STD’s. Abstinence is the best way to avoid any

STD’s. Multiple sex partners and choosing to have sex with people who have multiple sex

partners is risky. Bisexuals and homosexuals have higher rates of HIV virus in population so

protection and awareness are important. Unprotected sex with IV drug users is risky as is anal

sex.

Chapter 17/ Developing and Aging

17.1 Fertilization

17.2 Pre- Embryonic and Embryonic Development

17.3 Fetal Development

17.4 Pregnancy and Birth

17.5 Development After Birth

17.1 Fertilization

The union of a sperm and an egg is called fertilization. This union forms a zygote.

1- Sperm makes its way through the corona radiata.

2- Acrosomal enzymes digest a portion of zona pellucida.

3- Sperm binds to and fuses with egg plasma membrane.

4- Sperm nucleus enters cytoplasm of egg.

5- Cortical granules release enzymes; zona pellucida becomes fertilization membrane.

6- Sperm and egg pronulclei are enclosed in a nuclear envelope.

17.2 Pre- Embryonic and Embryonic Development

Computer generated imagery of DNA double-helix with methylation. The very beginnings of life-DNA :Genetic Blueprint

http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/series/in-the-womb/4048/Overview?#tab-Photos/0

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Processes of Development

Cleavage- the zygote begins to divide immediately after fertilization. Cell division is miotic and the zygote receives full set of chromosomes and genes.

Growth- Cell division increases in size of daughter cells.

Morphogenesis- Refers to shaping of the embryo and movement along with migration of certain cells.

Differentiation- Refers to specific structure and function of cells, which occurs first in the nervous system.

Extraembryonic Membranes are located outside the embryo. The function of the

Extraembryonic Membranes in human beings is specific to the species because humans develop in the uterus.

(1)Chorion- this is the fetal half of the placenta after development (the placenta is organ that nourishes and carries waste)

(2)Allantois- accumulates urine

(3)Yolk Sac- it is the first site of blood cell formation

(4)Amnion- contains fluids to cushion and protect

280 days is considered “normal gestation period” mathematically it is figured as: 280 days added to the start date of the last menstruation cycle.

Pre-embryonic Development- (first week) sperm enters egg and fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube…..as zygote moves along the oviduct cleavage occurs to produce morula, also the blast cyst forms and lodges into the lining of the uterus.

Embryonic Development-(second week till end of 8th week) the umbilical cord takes shape- gastrulayion begins

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17.3 Fetal Development

Progesterone and estrogen are produced by the placenta during a pregnancy and these two

hormones along with negative feedback from the hypothalamus and pituitary no new follicles can

mature- the hormones also prevent any further menstruations during pregnancy.

Path of fetal blood travels through the umbilical cord. At the placenta there is an exchange of

molecules between fetal and maternal blood across the walls of the chorionic villi.

Science Focus page 362 / Cloning Humans: Can it be Done?

1997 was the first successful cloning experiment and although today we consider cloning of animals to be fairly commonplace, there are still a number of problems associated with it.

(1) A large number of the pregnancies are not successful because they do not end in full term live births.

(2) Abnormalities with the clone’s growth are common.

(3) Often spontaneous abortion occurs.

(4) Typical abnormalities occur.

(5) Appearance may look normal however disease and other difficulties soon arise often times.

There are two types of cloning:

Reproductive Cloning is when the end result is an individual-

Therapeutic Cloning is when the desired outcome is embryonic cells that can then be shaped genetically into various cell types.

Events of Fetal Development (3rd through the 9th month) During the 3rd and the 4th month

The fetus can be recognized as a human being. During this stage of development many changes are taking place with the fetus head development. During this stage it becomes possible to detect the sex of the fetus. The babies heartbeat becomes strong and can be detected with a stethoscope.

During the 5th through the 7th month

Movement can now be felt by the mother.

The fetus skin is covered by fine down (like fur).

Eyelids are open.

The baby stands a chance of survival if it is born at this time during the pregnancy.

During the 8th and the 9th month

Baby will be about 20 ½ inches long and weigh about 7 ½ lbs prior to birth. Head is usually pointed toward the cervix to emerge into the world head first through the birth canal. A baby born feet first is calle3d “breech’’.

The sex of a child is actually determined at the moment of fertilization. Males = chromosomes X+Y….Females = X+X

There is no way to differentiate the sex of a fetus externally during the first few weeks of pregnancy. If SRY genes are present in the genetic make up then the script is for male genitals but w/o SRY genes then the code is for female sex organs.

17.4 Pregnancy and Birth

Placental hormones (estrogen and progesterone) are responsible for physical changes of the mother during pregnancy. During pregnancy a woman goes through many physiological changes.

Energy level changes, body weight, nausea, and back pain.

Placental hormones in the mothers body support the growth and well being of the fetus. Some of the changes are: arteries relax, changes in blood pressure, blood volume increases, cardiac output increases, decrease in intestinal tract motility.

The pulmonary values increase and also, bronchial tubes relax, uterus size increases, and blood carbon dioxide levels drop significantly. Compression of the ureters and bladder can cause incontinence. Stretch marks often times occur.

Birth

Braxton Hicks Contractions are “false labor” contractions.

“Parturition” refers to the process of giving birth to offspring
Stage 1 Labor: the cervical canal disappears as the lower part of uterus is pulled upward toward the baby’s head when the uterus is contracting (this phase is called affacement) the baby’s head acts as a wedge- amniotic fluid usually ruptures during this stage-this stage is complete once the cervix dilates completely.

Stage 2 Labor: during this stage of labor the physical desire to push increases greatly as the contractions become stronger and also closer together. The baby travels down the birth canal and once the head emerges then the rest of the body follows more easily- the umbilical cord is cut once the baby starts breathing.

Stage 3 Labor: The placenta is delivered and then the birth cycle is complete.

17.5 Development After Birth

Aging refers to the continuation of development that naturally occurs in the life cycle and can lead to disease and death.

Gerontology is the study of aging.

Hypotheses of Aging

Genetic in Origin: It is believed that aging has a genetic basis/ defective mitochondrial (defective DNA polymere) may accelerate the process of aging.

Whole Body Process: A decline in the hormonal system function causes aging/diabetes type 2 and menopause occur in older adults because cell receptors are ineffective. The immune system does not function as well in older adults as it does in younger ones. Aging may or may not be caused by system failures. Cross linking of proteins that support tissues may increase the organ break down process and promote the aging process. Cross linking may also explain the inability of certain organs, such as the heart, lungs, and blood vessels to operate in latter life the same way that they operate in younger people. Elasticity in tendons and ligaments decreases with aging, which is another by product of cross linking.

Glucose attaching to the protein molecules in a persons body is the first step in cross linking.
Extrinsic Factors: It may come to light someday that the actual signs of aging are caused in large part to years and years in early life of lack of good diet and exercise.

Skin becomes thinner as people age.

The homeostasis system does not adjust to or tolerate heat in the older person.

Cardiovascular disease are leading cause of death in the older adult population.

Blood flow to liver is decreased as is the flow to the kidneys.

Loss of teeth is more due to neglect than to aging. Brain function for learning and retention is slower but still quite functional.

Loss of skeletal muscle is common, as is weight gain.

Ethical Issue: Unit Three/ Exercise... Is the Concept Working?

2008-11-14T21:24:00.000-08:00

Unit Three; Ethical Issue/ Exercise … "Is the concept Working?"

Reading the article about reversing obesity by addressing environmental causes had some strong points. I agree with the statements about how culturally we have become a lot less physically active due to the close proximity of places and things that we use or go to in our daily lives. We, as a society have gotten used to walking from our houses to our vehicles and then just a few short steps to the store, the mall, or the movies. We rarely have to depend on our legs for transportation these days. Work has become much more sedantary for many people as compared to 30-40 years ago. Computers ,video games, televisions, even telephones, (which are now in everyones pocket instead of their desk or their wall) have all been contributers to a society that simply doesn't move any longer! The other item I agree with is the part about advertisements and commercialism for fast, convenient, high caloric, low nutritional food choices. The article also mentioned restaurants also being a leading cause of low nutritional, high caloric food intake. I don’t agree with more government involvement and regulations being the answer to the obesity problem in the US and many other parts of the world. I would love to see people get involved and get “Green” on themselves and their families and start doing different, healthier things in their lives.
In our text book the piece on exercise was informative. The advantages listed for even moderate exercise were stacked in complete favor of people getting off their couches and doing physical activities! I agree whole-heartedly with some of the positive outcomes for exercise. I believe that physical activity not only makes a person healthier by burning calories and exercising muscles, I also believe that exercise can prevent certain diseases and also help maintain better mental health by warding off depression and fatigue.
In conclusion, I think people of all ages need much more physical activity than what they are getting. I believe that if people would attempt to make even small changes in their physical activity just long enough to see some of the benefits, then they might be more apt to keep up the new behaviors and possibly even add more activities as time went on.

Unit Three Lab Project: Building a Movable Limb

2008-11-14T19:17:00.000-08:00

Lab Project Unit Three; Build a Moveable Limb

Introduction:
My model is of a femur bone , which is the longest and also strongest bone in the body. The femur connects to the tibia. The muscle that is attached to the femur is the thigh muscle, but also the buttocks and hip muscles are in this same region of the lower body. My model shows and explains the workings and functions of the thigh muscle. The area I am focusing on is at the top of the femur. This is where the “lesser and greater trochanters are located and this is also where the muscle attaches and begins as it runs the length of the femur.

List of Limb Parts and Their Model Representation:

The parts to my model )from top to bottom)
Coxal Bone/includes ilium, pubis, ischium- I made them from construction paper and play dough-
Ace tabulum/head of femur, and “neck”- I made these from construction paper, magic marker, and play dough-
Greater and Lesser Trochanter- I made these from play dough-
Femur- I used a wooded spoon for the bone-
Medial Candyle /Lateral Epicondyle- I made these from Play dough-
Pantella (Kneecap) Construction paper
Tibial Tuberosity and Head of Fibula are made of Play dough
Tibia and the fibula are both represented by marker on construction paper-

These are my supplies I used for my project

This light blue poster has my femur bone /parts/ muscle theme all layed out:

The white poster board shows and explains a muscle cell and how it contracts due to actin/myosin filiments (cross-over). My second board also shows and explains about neurons that go to muscle cells that cause contraction. The second board shows the workings of a muscle fiber and a motor fiber and also on the cellular level how Calcium binds to Myosin sites.

Mydark blue poster board shows a Neuron /axon with Schwann Cells and the process of Action Potential.

Conclusion: My models show some of the most important processes within the muscular/nervous systems that help make our bodies so amazing. I have learned from working on this assignment that the CNS/PNS along with the other systems in the body are all connected through sensory communication and reactions.

Online Lab: Leech Neurons

2008-11-13T18:48:00.000-08:00

Leech Neurophysiology Lab:

http://www.leeches.biz/buy-leeches.htm web page of medicinal leeches

QUESTIONS ABOUT LEECH NEUROPHYSIOLOGY LAB:(Answer these questions to get full exemplary lab credit (A-level, 18-20 points)

1. What is the electrode measuring?

A-It is measuring the voltage of individual neurons.

2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments?

Because it has been found that simple systems are easy to understand.
Simple nervous systems follow many of the same rules as more complex ones like
humans, so results that occur in the more simple systems may be directly relevant in
trying to understand the more complex human brain.
They are favored because of small number and large size of neurons.

3. What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron?

A sensory neuron is a nerve cell that transmits impulses to the central nervous system (spinal cord or brain). It is information such as taste, touch, hot, cold, sound, sight or pain. A motor neuron is a nerve cell that transmits direction to muscles and organs from the central nervous system to perform some function.

4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? What is pain?

A- No- First because it was anesthesized on the simulator prior to dissection. I also don’t think a leech experiences hardly any pain because they don’t have the “input region” of nerves to receive pain information signals plus they do not have brains that receive signals like humans do. They have no dendrites or synapses to relay pain messages like humans and many higher evolved species.

5. What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab?

A- I thought it was fun doing the mock dissection and also being able to check out the different electrical currents with the different tools.

6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about the lab?

A- The only thing difficult was realizing I needed to play with it long enough to get familiar with the diiferent things it could do and what my lab requirements were for the project.

Compendium Review Unit Three:Major Topic Two/ Movement

2008-11-13T18:40:00.000-08:00

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Chapter 11/Skeletal System

11.1 Overview of Skeletal System
11.2 Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair
11.3 Bones of the Axial Skeleton
11.4 Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton
11.5 Articulations

11.1 Overview of Skeletal System

Skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, and fibrous connective tissue, which occurs in ligaments and joints-

The skeleton supports the body-

The skeleton protects soft body parts-

The skeleton produces blood cells-

The skeleton stores minerals and fat-

The skeleton, along with muscles, permits flexible body movement-

Anatomy of a long bone:

Diaphysis (shaft) is main portion-

Diaphysis has medullary cavity (walls contain compact bone)-

Medullary cavity filled with yellow bone marrow that stores fat-

Compact bone is highly organized- bone cells are called osteocytes and the ostescytes are in lacunae-

Matrix fills lacunae spaces-

Spongy bone is “unorganized’ when compared to compact bone- spaces of spongy bone are filled with red bone marrow which produces al types of blood cells-

Cartilage is not as strong as bone- it is flexible due to gel like matrix-cells of cartilage- these cells are called chondrocytes and are found irregularly in lacunae-

Cartilage does not have blood vessels, and is slow healing-

Three types of cartilage:

1-hyaline cartilage is firm somewhat flexible

2-fibrocartilage is stronger and matrix contains collagen fibers

3- elastic cartilage is flexible and matrix contains mostly elastin fibers

Fibrous connective tissue makes up the ligaments that connect bone to bone and bone to joint-

11.2 Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair

Bones ability to respond to stress by changing size, shape, and strength is called remodeling-

When bones are fractured and they repair this is called bone repair-

Bones are composed of living tissue- they are composed of several different types of cells-

1- Osteoblasts are bone forming cells

2- Osteocytes are mature bone cells

3- Osteoclasts are bone absorbing cells

Osteoclasts are removing matrix’ and osteoblasts are building it up-

Ossification is the formation of bone-

Intramembranous bones are flat bones such as skull bones-

Intramembranous ossification is the formation of bone between sheets of fibrous connective tissue-

Endochondral Ossification - most of the human skeleton falls into this type of bone-

Bone replaces the cartilaginous models of the bones- calcified bone matrix makes it possible for the endochondral bones to hold and support weight-

This process from cartilage to most long bone is as follows:

Cartilage model into the bone collar into the primary ossification center into the medullary cavity and secondary ossification sites and finally into the epiphyseal (growth) plate-

The epiphyseal contains four layers:

1- resting zone is where cartilage remains

2-proliferating zone is where chondrocytes produce new cartilage cells

3- degenerating zone cartilage cells dying off

4- ossification zone is where bone is forming

Bone length growth is final once the epiphyseal plate closes- hormones control the activity of the epiphyseal plate-

Hormones affect bone growth

Hormones are chemical messengers made in one part of the body but used by the body in another part.

Vitamin D is an important vitamin for bone formation because it is converted into a hormone that works in the intestinal tract with the absorption of calcium-

Bone Remodeling and its Role in Homeostasis

Osteoclasts is the break down of bone and Osteoblasts is the reforming process that is continually taking place within the body- This process is called “Remodeling”

Paget’s Disease is where the new bone is generated too quickly, therefore softer and weaker than desired-

Bone recycling allows our bodies to regulate the amount of calcium in the blood- blood calcium is important for clotting to occur-bones are the storage site for calcium-blood calcium is regulate by two hormones:

1- parathyroid hormone accelerates recycling and increases blood calcium level-

2- calcitonin hormone acts opposite to parathyroid hormone

Bone remodeling is the reason why our bones can respond to stress- exercise is strongly recommended as this also keeps bones strong by stimulating the osteoblasts instead of the osteoclasts process-

Bone Repair

The four steps to bone repair:

1-hematoma- after a fracture, blood escapes from vessels to form a hematoma in space between broken bones (6-8 hours)

2- fibrocartilaginous callus- tissue repair starts when a fibrocartilaginous callus fills space between ends of broken bones (approx. 3 weeks)

3- bony callus- osteoblasts produce trabeculae of spongy bone and convert fibrocartilaginous callus to bony callus- joins broken bones together (3-4 months)

4- remodeling- osteoblasts build new compact bone, osteoclasts absorb spongy bone, new medullary cavity is formed

Science Focus page 215

Identifying skeletal remains is discussed. Age of the remains can be approximated by dentition, which is studying the structure of the teeth. Bone ossification also gives clues to the approximate age of the remains. Pelvic bones are the best indicator of the gender. Observed racial characteristics can sometimes help determine the ethnicity of the skeleton, however, it is difficult with all of the genetic blending.

11.3 Bones of the Axial Skeleton

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There are 206 bones of the skeleton.

Axial skeleton lies in the midline of body- consists of skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and rib cage-

The skull formed by cranium and facial bones-

The cranium protects the brain- adults have 8 bones tightly joined together to form cranium- sinuses are contained in the cranium- major bones of the cranium are named like the lobes of the brain: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal-

Facial bones mainly consist of the;

Mandible- lower jaw
Maxillae- bones that form upper jaw and hard palate
Zeugmatic- cheekbone prominences
Nasal bones- bridge of nose

The hyoid bone is the only skeletal bone that does not articulate with any other bone- it is attached to the temporal bones by muscles and ligaments and the larynx by a membrane-
The vertebral column consists of 33 vertebrae- it has four curvatures- when the vertebrae join this is how the column is formed- there are different types of vertebrae- they are named according to their location-

Cervical vertebrae are located in the neck (7)

Atlas is the name of the first vertebrae and is so named for the Greek god “Atlas”

Axis is number two and is named because it allows some rotation.

Thoracic vertebrae (12)
Ribs attach here
Lumbar (5)
These are the vertebrae in the small of the back.
Sacrum (5)
Fused vertebrae-form pelvic curvature
Coccyx (3-5)
Fused- form the tail bone
The rib cage is called the thoracic cage- composed of thoracic vertebrae- rib cage is part of the axial skeleton- rib cage is protective but flexible-rib is a flattened bone- there are 12 pairs of ribs- helps protect the heart and lungs-
The Sternum lies midline of the body- helps protect the heart and lungs- also called the breast bone- it is composed of three bones:

1-manubrium (the handle)
2- body (the blade)
3- xiphoid process (the point of blade)

11.4 Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton

Appendicular Skeleton consists of the bones within the pectoral and pelvic girdles and the attached limbs- pectoral girdle are specialized for flexibility and the pelvic girdle are specialized for strength-

The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb
The body has left and right pectoral girdles-

Each consist of:

scapula (shoulder blade)
clavicle (collar bone)
Glenoid cavity (allows arm to move in almost any direction)
Rotator cuff (tendons extend to humerous from four muscles on scalpula)
Humerous (long bone in the arm)
Radius (capitulum)
Ulna (trochlea)
Carpal (wrist consists of eight) look like small pebbles
Metacarpal (bones that fan out to form hand framework)
Digits (fingers or toes)
Phalanges (bones of fingers and thumbs)
The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb
The body has a left and right pelvic girdle
Pelvic girdle (hip girdle) has two heavy large coxal bones (hip bones)
Pelvis is a basin made of the pelvic girdle, sacrum, and coccyx-
Pelvis bears the body weight, protects organs within pelvic cavity, and is the place of attachment for legs-
Coxal bone (has three parts) 1-ilium 2-ischium 3-pubis- these are fused in adults
Hip socket (acetabulum) forms where three bones meet-
Femur )longest and strongest bone in the body)
Tibia
Patella (knee cap)
Fibula (slender bone of the leg)
Foot (each foot has ankle, instep, and five toes)
Ankle (consists of seven tarsal bones)
Instep has five elongated metatarsal bones
Phalanges (toe bones)

11.5 Articulations

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Bones are joined at joints-

Joints are fibrous-

Suture are fibrous joints between the cranial bones and they are immovable-

Cartilaginous joints are connected by hyaline cartilage or fibro cartilage-

Cartilaginous joints tend to be slightly movable-

Synovial joint is one filled where the cavity is filled with lubricating fluid called synovial fluid- ligaments connect bone to bone and support/strengthen joints. The fluid sacs (synovial) ease friction and make movement possible-

Different types of Synovial joint movement:

1- flexion/Extension
2- Adduction/Abduction
3-Rotation/Circumduction
4- Inversion/Eversion

When there is muscle contraction, one bone moves in relation to another bone-

Chapter 12/Muscular System

12.1 Overview of Muscular System
12.2 Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contraction
12.3 Whole Muscle Contraction
12.4 Muscular Disorders
12.5 Homeostasis

12.1 Overview of Muscular System

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All muscles contract-

When a muscle contracts, some part of the body moves.

Humans have three types of muscle tissue:

(1) smooth- fibers are spindle shaped cells-single nucleus (uninucleated)-cells arranged in parallel lines-located in walls of hollow internal organs- causes contractions, which are involuntary-slow to contract but can sustain longer- does not fatigue easily-

(2) cardiac- heart wall-fibers are uninucleated, striated, tubular, and branched-fibers interlock at intercalated disks-relax completely between contractions which prevent fatigue-rhythmical-occurs without outside nervous stimulation-involuntary-

(3) skeletal- fibers are tubular, multinucleated, and striated-attached to the skeleton-run length of muscle- often quite long-voluntary muscle-

Skeletal muscles have many functions:

1- support the body
2- help maintain constant body temperature
3-contraction assists movement in cardiovascular and lymphatic vessels
4-help protect internal organs and stabilize joints

Skeletal muscles are well organized

Whole muscle is made up of bundles of skeletal muscle fibers called fascicles

Fascicles are strands

Each fiber is surrounded by connective tissue as is the entire fascicle

Muscles are covered with fascia (type of connective tissue that becomes a tendon)

Skeletal muscles usually function in groups

For movement a group of muscles is stimulated, not just a single muscle-

Muscles contract and they shorten- this means that muscles can only pull, they cannot push-

Because of this muscles work in opposite pairs-

Human Muscle Groups from figure 12.4:

Front view-left side of picture

orbicular is oculi
orbicular is oris
Pectoralis major
Serratus anterior
External oblique
Quadriceps femoris
Tibialis anterior
Front view-right side of picture
Masseter
Deltoid
Biceps brachii
Rectus abdominis
Flexor carpi group
Adductor longus
Sartorius
Extensor digit rum longus

Back View:

Trapezius
Lattisimus dorsi
Triceps brachii
Extensor carpi group
Extensordigitorum
Gluteus maximus
Biceps femoris
gastrocnemius

12.2 Skeletal Muscle Fiber

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Skeletal muscles have alternating light and dark bands giving striated appearance-
A muscle fiber is a cell containing cellular components-

Plasma membrane is called sarcolemma

Cytoplasm is the sarcoplasm

Endoplasmic reticulum is the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Muscle fiber has T transverse tubules that penetrate/dip down into cell so they come into contact, but do not fuse together-

Sarcoplasmic reticulum encases myofibrils (which are the contractors in the muscle fibers)
There are thick and thin Myofilaments

Thick filaments- made of several hundred molecules of protein myosin

Thin filaments-consists of two intertwining strands of protein actin- two other proteins are also involved at this point, they are tropomyosin and troponin.

*See figure 12.5 page 233 for diagram

Sliding filaments- muscles are stimulated- impulses travel down T tubule- calcium is release- muscle fiber contracts as sarcomeres shorten-actin filaments slide past myosin (thick filament) and approach one another-band then shortens causing Z line to move inward- H zone almost completely disappears-

Movement of actin filaments in relation to myosin filaments is “sliding filament model”
Control of Muscle Fiber Contraction

Muscle fibers contract because they are stimulated by motor neurons with axons in the nerves-

Each axon has several branches-

Each branch ends in a terminal-

Synaptic Cleft is a small gap that separates axon terminal from sarcolemma-

Axon terminals consist of synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh)-

ACh is released when nerve impulse travel down motor neuron and arrive at axon terminal-

ACh is released and quickly diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors in sarcolemma-

12.3 Whole Muscle Contraction

Muscles have Motor Units

Axons within a nerve stimulate muscle fibers-

“motor unit” is a nerve fiber along with all of the muscle fibers it innervates-

A motor unit obeys the “All or Nothing” law-This occurs because muscle fibers in motor unit are stimulated all at once, so they all either contract or do not contract-

Muscle Twitch refers to a single contraction that lasts only a fraction of a second-

When a “motor unit” is rapidly stimulated it can respond to the next signal prior to complete relaxation in between-

Whole muscles contain many motor units-

“Recruitment” is when the intensity of nervous stimulation increases more motor units in muscle are activated-

Muscle tone is dependent on contraction and occurs in a person’s body when the motor units are contracted but not enough to cause movement-

Energy for Muscle Contraction

There are four (4) sources a muscle can get its energy from-
Two of the sources are stored in muscle-they are glycogen and fat (triglycerides)

Two are acquired from blood- muscles use “blood glucose” and “plasma fatty acids”

Muscle cells can store ATP but the amounts are limited.

There are three ways muscles can get more ATP

(1) produced by creatine phosphate (CP pathway) -ATP production by the CP pathway is the simplest and the fastest because it is only one reaction. The reaction occurs in the sliding filaments. Creatine Phosphate can ONLY be formed when a muscle cell is resting, and limited amount is stored.

(2) fermentation- produces two ATP from breakdown of glucose to lactate anaeroically-This process usually begins with glycogen. Hormones signal muscles cells to break down glycogen, which makes glucose available to the muscle- fermentation is fast acting but builds up lactate-lactate build up causes short term muscle pain- oxygen debt (taking in of oxygen) helps break down the excess lactate-

(3) cellular respiration (CR)- A molecule called myoglobin is present in muscle cells- this molecule combines with /stores oxygen-

ATP is not immediately supplied for muscle contraction-

ATP is supplied when a person exercises - submaximal (less than at maximum output) with high intensity-

Aerobic exercise utilizes “CR” to make ATP for muscle contraction and burns body fat-
“CR” uses glucose from glycogen, also uses fatty acids-

http://www.islandcounty.net/health/images/PhyAct1.jpg ( pyramid picture)

Health Focus page 238

Exercise benefit’s the entire body! It improves muscle strength, cardio respiratory endurance, body composition, prevents certain kinds of cancer, and improve bone density. Exercise relieves depression. Studies show that even moderate exercise for just a few hours a week improves a persons mental and physical health. No body is too old to benefit from physical activity.
Fast-twitch fibers are anaerobic, designed for strength- there motor units contain many fibers-provide explosions of energy- helpful in sports activities (sprinting, weight lifting, golf club swings)-light in color because fewer mitochondria-they have little myoglobin- rapidly gains maximum tension- greater tension- accumulate lactate easily due to dependence on anaerobic energy-

personal photo of the 2008 Whiskey Row Marathon in Prescott

Slow-twitch fibers have steadier tug, more endurance, small number of fibers- helpful in some sports (long distance running, biking, jogging, and swimming) energy is produced aerobically, they tire only when they are out of fuel- have many mitochondria- dark in color-contain myoglobin-surrounded by dense capillary beds and draw blood and oxygen from fast-twitch fibers-low maximum tension- highly resistant to fatigue- they have a substantial reserve of glycogen and fat, along with high mitochondria, help maintain and produce ATP when oxygen is available-

DOMS appears 24-48 hours after strenuous exercise -associated with activities where muscles contract while they are lengthening (walking down stairs, running down hill) prevention includes warm ups and cool downs, start new regimes slowly, don’t make huge changes in exercise program-

12.4 Muscular Disorders

Common Muscle Conditions

Spasms are sudden and involuntary

Strains are caused by stretching or tearing the muscle.

Tendinitis is when the tendon is impaired and inflamed.

Bursitis is the inflammation of the bursa.

Muscular Diseases

Myalgia means achy muscles usually caused by over-use or over-stretching.

Muscular Dystrophy is a progressive degeneration and weakening of the muscles.

Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease of weakness in eye lids, face, neck, and extremities.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s Disease) is gradual loss of abilities to walk, talk, chew, and swallow.

12.5 Homeostasis

Movement is essential in the maintaining of homeostasis. The skeletal and the muscular systems create movement by working together.

The skeletal and muscular systems work as a team with the following body systems to help maintain homeostasis:

(1)Cardiovascular system, (2)Urinary system,(3) Digestive system,(4) Nervous system, (5)Endocrine system,(6) Respiratory system, (7)Reproductive system.

The skeletal system protects soft organs of the body (1)brain (2)heart (3)lungs (4)spinal cord (5)kidneys (6)liver (7)endocrine glands

The muscular system pads bones and protects the abdominal organs-

Calcium homeostasis is over seen by the endocrine system as the skeletal system helps in the process.

Red bone marrow is where blood cells are produced.

Red blood cells are carriers of oxygen in blood.

Oxygen is necessary for production of ATP be aerobic CR. WBC originate in red bone marrow. White Blood Cells protect our bodies against pathogens. Bones have yellow and red marrow. Fat is stored in yellow bone marrow, that’s how and why its part of the bodies energy supply reserve.

Muscles Help Maintain Body Temperature

There are temperature sensitive neurons in the hypothalamus. ATP generates heat. Goose bumps are caused when arrector pili muscles contract.

Unit Three: Online Lab/Muscle Function

2008-11-13T18:07:00.000-08:00

INTRODUCTION:
Much of the work of the body depends on the contraction of skeletal
muscles. In this experiment you will first observe the characteristics of
muscle contraction and then will investigate the effects of two factors -
temperature and fatigue - on the action of your muscles.

MATERIALS:
dishpan of water
narrow strip of paper which will fit around upper arm
ice or snow
rubber ball or clothespin
timer (clock, watch, or stop watch)

PROCEDURE:
The following exercises will help you understand what happens to your
muscles when they contract.

Muscle Action
1. Place your fingers along the angle of your jaw just in front of your
ear. Grit your teeth and observe what happens to the hardness of the
muscles in your cheek.

Answer- My cheek muscle gets harder.

2. With the thumb and little finger of one hand, span the opposite arm's
biceps (front muscle of the upper arm) from the elbow to as close to the
shoulder as possible. Bend the arm and observe the change in the length of
the muscle.

Answer- The span feels shorter between my thumb and little finger.

3. Wrap a strip of paper around your upper arm and mark the circumference
of your arm on the paper. Clench your fist tightly and mark the new
circumference on the paper. Observe what happens to the circumference of
the muscle.

Answer- When I measured the circumference the second time with my fist tightly clenched, I came up with a longer measurement. * My arm circumference was bigger the second measurement.
First measurement 11.2 inches
Second measurement 12.4 inches

Action
1. Count the number of times you can make a fist in 20 seconds. Start with
your hand completely outstretched and make a tight fist each time. Do it
as rapidly as you can.

Record the count in figure one:

2. Now submerge your hand in a dishpan of water to which has been added
snow or ice so that the temperature is near the freezing point. Leave your
hand in the water for one full minute.

3. Remove your hand and immediately count how many forceful fists you can
make in 20 seconds. Record in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Effect of Temperature on Muscle Action

"Temperature"

Normal: Number of fists = 32

Ice Water : Number of fists = 22

Effect of Fatigue on Muscle Action

1. Count how many times you can tightly squeeze a rubber ball in your hand
in 20 seconds. Record in Figure 2.

2. Repeat the squeezing nine more times and record results. Do not rest
between trials.

Figure 2: Effect of Fatigue on muscle action

Trial
# of Squeezes in 20 seconds
1 = 30
2 = 30
3 = 27
4 = 22
5 = 19
6 = 16
7 = 16
8= 14
9 =14
10= 13

ANALYSIS OF DATA:

1. What are the three changes you observed in a muscle while it is working (contracted)?

(1) While the muscle was contracting I noticed it became shorter.

(2) While the muscle was working I noted that it became larger.

(3) While the muscle was being worked it became harder to the touch because of fluid build-up.

2. What effect did the cold temperature have on the action of your hand muscles?

A- The cold temperature affected my hand muscle in two ways that I noticed. The first thing I noticed was that my total number of squeezes was lower. The other thing I noticed in my hand muscle was that with the cold I was not able to squeeze as hard into a fist Explain: With the cold temperature, my blood flow was slowed down into the muscle and the reaction of chemicals relaying message to the brain and then signaling muscle contraction was slowed down due to cold. For contractions calcium binds to troponin and it exposes binding sites and utilizes ATP in the muscular junction. When the temperature is lowered in the arm and hand, this process can not work as efficiently because the body is also working toward homeostasis.

3. In Figure 3, make a line graph of your results of the fatigue experiment. Be sure to fill in the values on the vertical axis. - NOT REQUIRED AS PER LARRY FROLICH ASSIGNMENT DIRECTIONS!

4. What effect did fatigue have on the action of your hand muscles?

Fatigue made my hand muscle contractions slow down so I was not able to do as many squeezes as when I first started. I also noticed that I had to concentrate more to squeeze firmly. I noticed in my forearm especially that the muscle there was getting warmer (burning sensation) and also felt harder as well. Explain. I think part of the explanation is because as my hand muscle became more fatigued the glucose in my muscle was being broken down into lactate anaerobically as more ATP was being produced after my small stored amount was used up. I think the burning pain in my forearm was lactate build up (fermentation) along with the fatigue.

5- Conclusion:Explain on a cellular level how cold and fatigue would affect muscular action.

On a cellular level I believe both cold and fatigue conditions can be related to the cellular respiration concept. Most ATP is supplied by Cellular respiration. This process uses glucose and fatty acids combined with a molecule that stores oxygen to make ATP. The APT breaks down chemically at binding sites to relay messages through motor units for contractions. The cold and fatigue would both affect the hand muscles blood flow and that in turn would make the oxygen level as well as creatin, calcium, and other mineral chemical levels either increase or restricted. This would explain the slowed response, the weakened ability, and the hotness in the adjoining muscles along with in the hand muscle.

Compendium Review Unit Three: Major Topic One/ Nervous Function

2008-10-24T17:17:00.000-07:00

Chapter 13/Nervous System

13.1 Overview of the Nervous System

13.2 The Central Nervous System

13.3 The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions

13.4 The Peripheral Nervous System

13.5 Drug Abuse

13.1 Overview of the Nervous System

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There are two major divisions of the Central Nervous System (CNS)
The two divisions are: the brain and the spinal cord
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists of nerves.
The two systems (CNS and PNS) work together and are connected.

Three specific functions of the nervous system:

(1) Receives sensory input- sensory receptors respond to external and internal stimuli with nerve impulses that travel from the PNS to the CNS.

(2) CNS performs integration- the CSN puts together all of the information it receives from all over the body.

(3) CNS generates motor output- nerve impulses from the CNS travel through the PNS into the muscles and glands.

Nervous Tissue

There are two types of cell in Nervous tissue

(1) Neurons- cells that transmit nerve impulses between parts of the nervous system.

(2) Neuroglia- supports and nourishes neurons.

Neuron Structure

There are three (3) types of neurons:

(1)Sensory Neuron- relays message from sensory receptor to the CNS. (The sensory receptor are structures for detection changes in the environment.)

(2)Interneuron- located entirely within the CNS- receive input from sensory neurons and also receive from other interneurons in the CNS- they compile all of the incoming information (nerve impulses) from the neurons prior to sending message to motor neuron.

(3)Motor Neuron- relays nerve impulses away from CNS to an effector (muscle fiber gland). An effector carries response to environmental changes, either external or internal.

Neurons all have three (3) parts:

1-Cell body- Contains nucleus and other organelles

2-Dendrites- Short extensions that receive signals

3-Axon- Part of the neuron that conducts nerve impulses- can be quite long/called a nerve fiber when present in nerves.

Myelin Sheath- a protective sheath that covers many axons-Schwann Cells is a neuroglia in the PNS-Schwann cells contain myelin in plasma membrane.

In the CNS oligodendrocytes perform the same function- Gaps where the Myelin Sheath is interrupted (broken) is called Nodes of Ranvier.

Long axons usually have myelin sheath and shorted ones do not.

The Nerve Impulse

Nerve impulses convey information within the nervous system.
The nerve impulse and its voltage is measured using a voltmeter and by studying excised axons.
Resting Potential is when the axon is not conducting an impulse.
Resting potential correlates with a difference in ion distribution on either side of axonal membrane.

Concentration of sodium ions is greater outside axons-
Concentration of potassium ions is greater inside ions-
The sodium /potassium pump is responsible for the uneven distribution.

Action Potential is rapid change in polarity across an axonal membrane as the nerve impulse occurs- such as when a stimulus causes the axonal membrane to depolarize to certain level (called threshold) * this occurs in an “all or none” manner.

Sodium Gates Open- action potential occurs-gates of sodium channels open-NA flows into axon-as NA fills axon the membrane potential changes-this is called de-polarization because the charge inside the axon changes from negative to positive.

Potassium Gates Open- gates of potassium open and K flows to outside of axon-as K moves to outside of axon, the action potential changes-this is called re-polarization because the inside of the axon resumes a negative charge as K leaves axon.

The Synapse

The axon branches into many fine endings tipped by small swellings called the axon terminal.
Each axon terminal is close to either the dendrite or the cell body of yet another neuron.
The area of closeness is called the synapse.

Synapse cleft is a tiny gap that separate the sending from the receiving neurons.

Transmission is completed by molecules called neurotransmitters-they are stored in synapse vesicles inside axon terminals-

Here is how it works-

1- nerve impulse reach an axon terminal

2- calcium ions enter the terminal which stimulate synaptic vesicles to merge with the sending membrane

3- neurotransmitter molecules are release into synaptic cleft, travel across cleft to receiving membrane and bind with specific receptor proteins- once events occur the neurotransmitter is removed from cleft-this cycle and removal prevent continuous stimulation (inhibition) of the receiving membranes. Removal makes it possible for new signals to be received and responded to by the cell membrane-

Neurotransmitter Molecules

Acetylcholine, nor epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, GABA are some of the many substances known as neurotransmitters.

Many of the drugs used that affect the nervous system interfere with the actions of the neurotransmitters.

Synaptic Integration-

Neurons have many dendrites plus cell body,- they can have synapses with many other neurons-because of this neurons are the receivers for many signals-either excitatory or inhibitory-

Caffeine is an example of excitatory and heroin is an example of inhibitory-

Integration means to sum up the incoming information whether it be excitatory or inhibitory-the evaluating of the message decides whether an axon will fire or not. Only if the combined signals cause the membrane potential to rise above certain threshold does an action potential occur.

13.2 The Central Nervous System

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Spinal cord and Brain make up the CNS-

Sensory information is received and motor control is initiated-the spinal chord and the brain are protected by bone-

(1)Spinal cord is surrounded by vertebrae

(2)Brain is enclosed by the skull

Both are wrapped in meninges for protection-

Spaces between meninges are filled with cerebrospinal fluid-

The brain has four (40 ventricles, which are interconnecting chambers that produce and hold cerebrospinal fluid-

The CNS is made up of two (2 types of nervous tissue)

1- Gray Matter- contains cell bodies and short nonmyelinated fibers

2- White Matter-contains myelinated axons that run together in bundles called tracts.

The Spinal Cord extends from base of brain through large opening in skull called foramen magnum and into vertebral canal formed by openings in vertebrae-

Cross section of spinal cord contains central canal, gray matter, and white matter-individual vertebrae protect the spinal cord-spinal nerves project from cord between the vertebrae -this makes up the vertebrae column-intervertebrael disks separate the vertebrae and if pressure occurs due to slippage, then pain is felt-

Functions of the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord communicates between the brain and peripheral nerves-

Sensory receptors generate nerve impulses which pass through sensory fibers to spinal cord to ascending tracts in brain- gate control theory proposes the tracts in spinal cord have gates which control flow of pain messages from peripheral nerves to brain-motor impulses starting in brain pass down descending tracts to spinal cord and out muscles-

Paralysis occurs when if the spinal cord is severed.

Reflex Action

The spinal cord houses thousands of reflex arcs-

Stimulus make sensory receptors generate nerve impulses- These nerve impulses travel in sensory axons in the spinal cord.

Interneurons take in information and relay signals to motor neurons-skeletal muscle contraction is a response to the stimulus- many signals are sent at one time because each interferon has synapses with several other interneurons and motor neurons-

The spinal cord operates with the internal organs-(involuntary system) such as blood pressure drops, internal receptors respond, motor impulses then cause blood vessels to constrict to increase blood pressure back to homeostasis level.

The Brain
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain.

Last to receive input before commanding voluntary motor responses-

Communicates to other brain areas: coordination and activities-

Cerebral Hemispheres- two halves of the cerebrum-

Known as the left and right cerebral hemispheres-

Longitudinal fissure divides the two halves-

Sulci (shallow grooves) divide hemispheres into lobes-

The frontal lobe is the most ventral-The parietal lobe is dorsal to the frontal lobe-

The occipital lobe is dorsal to parietal lobe-

The temporal lobe lies inferior to frontal and parietal lobes-

Each of the lobes carry our specific functions:

Figure 13.9/each cerebral is divided into four lobes/lobes contain centers for reasoning and movement, somatic sensing, hearing, and vision.

Frontal Lobe
(1)primary motor area
(2)premotor area
(3)motor speech (Broca’s) area
(4)prefrontal area

Occipital Lobe
(1)primary visual area
(2)visual association area

Cerebral Cortex-thin, outer layer of gray matter that covers cerebral hemispheres-contains over one billion cell bodies-area accounts for sensation, voluntary movement, all thought processes we associate with consciousness.

Primary Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex-contains motor and sensory and association areas-

Association Areas- places where integration occurs-

Processing Centers- receive information from other association areas-perform higher level analytical functions-

Central White Matter- A large portion of the cerebrum is made up of “white matter”-

Myelination occurs during childhood and ‘white matter” develops-

During childhood development, neurons become myelinated within tracts of cerebrum and that is why children become more skilled and capable-

Descending tracts from primary area communicate with lower brain centers, lower areas relay information to primary somatosensory area-Due to cross-over in medulla, the left side of cerebrum controls the right side of the body and vice versa-

Diencephalon contains the hypothalamus and the thalamus- (third ventricle)

Hypothalamus helps maintain homeostasis: regulates hunger, thirst, sleep, and body temperature.

Thalamus receives all sensory input: visual, auditory, somatosensory, everything except for smell-

The pineal gland is also located in the diencephalons but its functions are still under study-

Cerebellum is under occipital- separated from brain stem by fourth ventricle-

Cerebrum has two parts-Receives sensory input from eyes, ears and joints-receives motor output from cerebral cortex- maintains posture and balance-

The Brain Stem-Contains the mid-brain, pons, and medulla oblongata-

Mid-brain acts as relay station between cerebrum and spinal cord or cerebellum- relax center for visual, auditory, and tactile responses-

Pons- bridge containing bundles of axons that travel between cerebellum and rest of CNS-

pons works along with medulla oblongata to regulate breathing rate and has reflex centers-

Medulla oblongata- reflex center for regulation of heart beat, breathing, and blood pressure- also reflex center for vomiting, coughing, and sneezing-

Reticular Formation is complex network of nuclei (gray matter and fibers) extend length of the brain stem-Part of the RAS which receives sensory signals and sends them up to the higher centers- motor signals are sent to the spinal cord- RAS arouses cerebrum via thalamus to make person alert-believed to be able to filter out extra stimulus to help person focus on one thing-

13.3 The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions

Limbic system is primitive/ancient part of brain that is a “functional” grouping and not an “anatomical”-Limbic blends primitive emotions with higher mental functions into whole unit-

Two parts of the Limbic-

1-Amygdala-which can cause experiences to have emotional overtones, also creates the sensation of fear- frontal cortex can over-ride the limbic and make us re-think the situation and prevent strong reactions-

Hippocampus- believed to play large part in learning and memory- believed to be able to communicate with frontal cortex because memories are known to be an important part of decision making.

Higher Mental Functions

Brain research has advanced dramatically because of technological advancements.
Limbic system indicate that the cortical areas work with the lower centers to produce learning and memory-

Memory refers to the ability to hold a thought in mind or to recall-

Learning refers to retaining and then using past memories-

Types of memory:

(1) short term memory- information stored in front part of brain

(2) long term memory- information that is them memorized is associated with long term memory- combines semantic memory (numbers, words) and episodic (persons, events)

Skill Memory- can exist independently of episodic memory- involved in riding a bike or activities that involve motor skills-skill memory involves motor areas of cerebrum below level of consciousness.

Long term memory storage and retrieval- stored in bits in the sensory association areas-

Long Term Potentiation refers to what is believed to be memory storage- after synapses have been firing a lot in a short time period they release more neurotransmitters than previously-

This is thought to be LTP-

Language is dependent on semantic memory- disruptions within the normal pathways are
thought to interfere with comprehension-

Seeing and hearing words is dependent sensory centers in occipital and temporal lobes-

Wernicke’s area damage results in inability to understand speech-

Broca’s area damage results in inability to speak and write-

The left hemisphere of the brain is more global and the right hemisphere is more specific-

Left hemisphere is in control of: verbal, logical, analytical, rational

Right hemisphere is in control of: non-verbal, visuospatial, intuitive, creative

13.4 The Peripheral Nervous System

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free image from unit powerpoint presentation

The PNS lies outside the CNS and contains the nerves.

Cranial nerves arise from the brain

Spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord

All nerves take impulses (messages) to and from the CNS.

Humans have 12 pair of cranial nerves that are attached to the brain- some are sensory, some are motor, and some are mixed- largely involved to the head, neck , and facial areas-

Spinal nerves emerge in 31 pairs from either side of spinal cord-

Roots physically separate the axons of sensory and motor neurons-

Sensory neuron is in a dorsal root ganglion, which is a collection of cell bodies outside the CNS.

Somatic System- nerves in the somatic system serve the skin, skeletal muscles, and tendons-

Some actions are voluntary and some are automatic-

Reflexes are considered automatic-

The “reflex arc” involves only the spinal cord-

The sequence is described in Figure 13.15; Stimulus causes sensory receptors in skin to generate nerve impulses- go from sensory axons to spinal cord, there interneurons send message to motor neurons-motor axons from spinal cord contract and an automatic reflex occurs, such as a hand pulling away from a hot object or a pin prick.

Autonomic System is in the PNS- regulates activity of cardiac and smooth muscles and glands-
Area is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic-activation in two areas typically cause opposite responses-

Both (sympathetic and parasympathetic) have the following commonalties:

(1) function automatically and involuntarily

(2) innervate all internal organs

(3)utilize two neurons and one ganglion for each impulse

Sympathetic Division have ganglionic fibers that arise from the middle of spinal cord and terminate in ganglia that lie near cord-the preganglionic fiber is short but the post-ganglionic fiber that makes connection with the organ is long- sympathetic division is highly important during emergency situations _

Parasympathetic Division includes few cranial nerves and fibers that arise from the bottom of the spinal cord- in the parasympathetic system the preganglionic fiber is long and the postganglionic fiber is short because ganglia lie near or in the organ- sometimes referred to as the housekeeper division promotes all internal responses associated with a relaxed state- such as pupil contraction, food digestion, and heartbeat retardation- This system can be thought of as, “The rest and digest” system.

13.5 Drug Abuse

Drugs affect the nervous system, can alter moods and emotional states-

(1) limbic system is affected

(2) promote or decrease action of neurotransmitters

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that affects the brains reward circuitry-

Drug abuse is describes as, “The continued use of a substance despite negative impact on the individuals life.” Actually, this is my definition of drug dependency not our text book’s definition.
When a person takes a drug at a dose that increases potential for harm it is considered abuse. Drug abuse and dependency involves psychological and or physical dependency.

Cravings are part of the psychological addiction. Physical addiction is when a person needs more of the drug to get the same effects and also when the person stops using the chemical they experience withdrawals.

Alcohol use is the most socially and culturally accepted drug to be used in the world. Alcohol has harmful effects on the human body and the brain. Alcohol crosses the cell membrane, including the blood-brain barrier-In the CNS alcohol acts as a depressant.

Nicotine acts as a stimulant- during smoking it is delivered to the CNS and the mid-brain- increases skeletal muscle activity, heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion. Nicotine is highly addictive.

Cocaine is a powerful stimulant that comes from a shrub- interferes with the re-uptake of dopamine in the synapses in the CNS- continued use of cocaine causes the body to make less dopamine- tolerance leads to withdrawal-

Methamphetamine is a synthetic drug that is a highly addictive stimulant- effects are almost instantaneous- mimics cocaine and has structure similar to dopamine-

Heroin comes from the opium poppy plant- highly addictive depressant on the nervous system- rapidly delivered to the brain and turned into morphine-binds rapidly to opioid receptors for euphoric feelings- depressed breathing, activates the reward center, block pain pathways, and cloud mental functions- risky behaviors put heroin users in danger, such things as “sharing needles” unclean drugs, and risky sexual choices make this addiction very dangerous for disease and other health risks-

Marijuana contains THC and is a plant- THC mimics anadamide, when it reaches the CNS mild euphoria, altered vision and judgment occurs- regular use can cause cravings and make it difficult to stop usage-

Chapter 14/Senses

14.1 Sensory Receptors and Sensations
14.2 Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
14.3 Senses of Taste and Smell
14.4 Sense of Vision
14.5 Sense of Hearing
14.6 Sense of Equilibrium

14.1 Sensory Receptors and Sensations

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/ image from powerpoint presentation for this unit

Sensory receptors- dendrites specialized to detect certain kinds of stimuli-

Exteroceptors- sensory receptors that detect stimuli from outside the body, such as; taste, smell, vision, hearing, and equilibrium-

Interceptors- receive stimuli from inside the body, such as; pressoreceptors respond to changes in BP, osmoreceptors detect changes in water/salt balance, and chemo receptors monitor ph of blood-

Interceptors are related to homeostasis-

Extroceptors are NOT directly involved with homeostasis/ continuously send messages to CNS about environmental conditions-

There are four types of Sensory Receptors:

(1) chemo receptors- respond to chemicals in area/pain receptors are a specific type-they are naked dendrites that are responding to chemicals released by damaged tissues-

(2) photoreceptors- respond to light energy-stimulation of rod cells results in black and white vision-

(3) mechanoreceptors- stimulated by mechanical forces, usually by some type of pressure- they are responding to fluid-borne pressure waves when gravity/motion changes are felt-pressure receptors are responsible for the sensation of touch-

(4) thermo receptors- stimulated by changes in temperature-response to rising temperature is felt in warmth receptors and cold receptors are used when temperatures go down-

How Sensation Occurs

Sensation is “the conscious perception of stimuli.”

Sensory receptors are the first responders in a reflex arc-

Some sensory receptors are free nerve endings while other nerve endings are specialized-All sensory receptors initiate nerve impulse-

Prior to initiation, nerve impulses carry out integration (the summing up of signals) a particular kind of “integration” is called “sensory adaptation” which is a decrease in the response to stimuli-
Sensory receptor function is very important to homeostasis-it helps maintain a constant for our internal environment-

14.2 Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors

Nerve impulses traveling from muscles, joints, tendons, other internal organs, and skin go to the spinal cord, then to somatosensory areas of cerebral cortex-There are three (3) general types of sensory receptors:

(1) Proprioceptors-mechanoreceptors involved in reflex actions used to maintain muscle tone, equilibrium, and posture- assists us in knowing our body placement in its environment even with the force of gravity constantly putting pressure on us-

(2) Cutaneous Receptors- Skin is made of two layers, the epidermis is composed of the outer layers and the dermis is located underneath- Dermis is a thick connective tissue layer- Dermis contains cutaneous receptors, which are responsible for making skin sensitive to touch, pressure, pain, and the temperature-Dermis is composed of intertwined and many tiny receptors-
Cutaneous receptors that are sensitive to various degrees of touch are: (1)Meissner Corpuscles (touch) (2) Pacinian Corpuscles (pressure) (3) Ruffini Endings (pressure)

Pain Receptors

Skin and internal organs have pain receptors-they are sensitive to chemicals released by damaged tissues-Referred pain is when there is stimulation of internal pain receptors and from internal organs-some internal organs have a referred pain relationship with other body part, such as pain from heart is often felt in left shoulder and arm-

14.3 Senses of Taste and Smell

Taste and smell are known as chemical senses- taste and olfactory cells bear chemo receptors- chemo receptors are divided plasma membrane receptors- the two types are receptors that respond to distant stimuli and receptors that respond to direct stimuli-

Sense of taste:

Adults have approximately 3000 taste buds which are mainly located on the tongue- at least four (4) primary types of taste buds:

(1) sweet -tip of tongue area
(2) sour- sides of tongue area
(3) salty- sides of tongue area
(4) bitter- rear of tongue area

Taste buds open at a taste pore with support cells also elongated taste cells that end in micro villa-impulses travel in sensory nerve fibers that go to brain- they are interpreted at the gustatory cortex and translated-

Sense of Smell:

80-90% perception of our taste is actually due to smell-we have 10-2- million olfactory cells in roof of nasal cavity- olfactory cells end in tufts of five cilia, which bear receptor proteins-

olfactory interpretation is connected to emotion/memory brain centers-

14.4 Sense of Vision

The parts of the eye (optic nerve) and the brain (cerebral cortex) work together for vision-
There are three (3) layers to an eye-

(1) sclera-outer layer- the cornea is part of this area

(2) choroids- vascular for absorption of stray light rays- iris is part of this area, also the pupil inside the iris- behind the iris is the ciliary body- contains the ciliary muscle- controls lens shape for near and far vision- lens is part of this area that divides the eyeball into two compartments (anterior and posterior)

(3) retina-located in posterior compartment filled will gel like vitreous humor-retina contains photoreceptors- fovea centralis is where coned cells are densely packed-vision is most acute in this area-

Function of the Lens

The retina is able to focus images because of the cornea, lens assistance, and the humors-
“Focus” starts with cornea-

Next rays pass through lens and humors-

Light rays are bent (refracted) so they are much smaller than the actual image being viewed-
Visual accommodation happens for close vision- the lens rounds up to assist bringing the image into focus- the ciliary muscle assists when the object of focus is far away- lens shape is controlled by the ciliary muscle- “eye-strain’ occurs because of ciliary contractions used to help focus-

Function of Photoreceptors- once light has been focused on photoreceptors in retina that’s when vision begins- rod cells and cone cells make up the photoreceptors-Rhodopsin is complex

molecule made of protein opsin and retinal-

The retina has three (3) layers of neurons-

1- close to choroids layer are rod/cone cells-
2- middle layer contains bipolar cells
3-inner most layer contains ganglion cells-

There are no rods/cones where optic nerve exit’s the retina so this is a “blind spot” (no vision possible)

The optic nerve carries impulse to visual cortex and on to optic chiasma- the image is split because the two parts of the cortex receive different halves of the visual information- once the brain puts the image information back together again it also has a sense of depth perception -

Abnormalities of the Eye-

Nearsightedness occurs when a person can see better close up and not far away-
Farsightedness is when a person can see objects clearly that are far away but not at close distances-

Astigmatism is when objects appear fuzzy and is caused by an unevenness of the lens or cornea-

Health Focus page 285

Talks about cataracts and glaucoma conditions of the eye. Cataracts are caused because of a lens being cloudy and glaucoma is a build up of fluid inside the eyeball. Surgeries are discussed for both conditions. Lens replacement for cataracts can correct the condition and sometimes eye drops/oral medications can relieve built up pressure in glaucoma. Surgery is the alternative for glaucoma sufferers when medications do not work. Surgery consists of drilling tiny holes 9with a laser) in the iris/cornea area. Lasik surgery is discussed to help people who suffer from presbyopia (difficulty with focus). This condition is very common and is actually present in almost 100% of people around age 55.

14.5 Sense of Hearing

Hearing and balance are both functions of the ear- sensory receptors are located in the inner ear- they consist of hair cells and micro villa (called stereo cilia).

The ear has three (3) divisions:

1- Outer Ear- pinna, which is the outer flap and auditory canal-

2- Middle Ear- begins at tympanic membrane (eardrum) ends at bony wall containing two small openings covered by membrane-

Names of the opens are; oval/round windows-
The outer and middle ear contain air and the next division (inner) contains fluid-

3- Inner Ear- three areas (1) semicircular canals (2) vestibule) (3) cochlea

Sound (hearing) begins at auditory canal by means of sound waves, or vibrations-
The middle ear amplifies the sound vibrations- oval window membranes are then struck to send message on to the brain- Volume is interpreted by the brain and is felt as pressure within vestibular canal-

14.6 Sense of Equilibrium

Page 290: figure 14.15 The Mechanoreceptors for equilibrium

Rotational equilibrium- ampullae’s of the semicircular canals have hair cells with stereo cilia embedded in cupula- person turns their head and the cupula is displaced, then bending the stereocilia- nerve impulses go to vestibular nerve to the brain- (rotational or angular head movement)

Gravitational equilibrium- utricle and saccule contain hair cells with stereocilia imbedded in otolithic membrane- head bends, otoliths are displaced making membrane sag and stereocilia bend- when stereocilia bend toward kinocilium 9longest stereocilia) the nerve impulses increase in vestibular nerve- when stereocilia bend away from kinocilium the nerve impulses decrease in vestibular nerve- this DIFFERENCE tells the brain which way to move the head- (vertical or horizontal planes movement)

Unit Two Lab Project-Exercise Physiology

2008-10-23T21:31:00.000-07:00

www.howstuffworks.com aerobic exercise depends on the cardiovascular/respiration system to supply oxygen and nutrients as well as take away toxins from cells by using the heart pumping process to create energy in the body systems to meet the cardiovascular demand

Exercise Physiology Lab Study for Unit Two

INTRODUCTION

My lab project for unit two focused on the cardiovascular and respiration system during three different activities/exercises of my choosing plus during my “baseline”, at rest rate.

I was instructed to come up with a hypothesis on if I thought my metabolic rates would change with the various activities.

My instructions were to measure my pulse, respiration, systolic, and my diastolic rates after performing each of my four activities (I am including my baseline as an activity).

I chose to measure my rates five times (5) for each category and then calculate my “mean” rate on each measurement.

The three activities I chose were, reading my daily newspaper in my rocking chair, vacuuming my carpet for 2 minutes, and doing 25 jumping jacks.

HYPOTHESIS

I expected my baseline numbers and activity #1 (reading the newspaper) to be very close because these two activities are similar as to how much effort it takes to do them (low output physically by me so low Impact on my cardiovascular and respiration system.

My hypothesis for activity two (vacuuming) and activity three (jumping jacks) was gauged on my knowledge that the more energy and effort I had to use to push the vacuum and to do the jumping jacks the more I would be working (increasing) my cardiovascular/respiration system.

My cardiovascular/respiration system would work harder to insure I got enough blood pumping through my heart to feed the oxygen and nutrients to my organs and my muscles so my body could perform the activities I was asking it to.

My hypothesis was that my respiration, pulse, and my blood pressure would increase noticeably over the rates of the first two sedentary activities.

HYPOTHESIS TABLE FOR MY EXPERIMENT

Activity #1

similar/same-pulse

similar/same-respiration

similar/same-bp systolic

similar/same-bp diastolic

Activity #2

increase-pulse

increase-respiration

increase-bp systolic

increase-bp diastolic

Activity #3

increase-pulse

increase-respiration

increase-bp systolic

increase-bp diastolic

__________________________________________

My technique for taking my pulse was tried two ways, here I am using my fingers on my throat and then below I am counting the beats on my wrist.

_________________________________________________________

Here you see me using a wrist cuff to take my blood pressure. I am able to get the top numbers/systolic and also the bottom number/diastolic with this cuff. The instructions say to keep your cuffed wrist at heart/chest level and to remain still while cuff is in operation.

________________________________________________________

Here I am figuring my respiration rate. I count the times I take a breathe for a 30 second count and then multiply by 2 . (I used an online stop watch to assist me during my respiration reads and also my pulse reads at: http://www.stopwatch.com/ )_________________________________________
BELOW IS MY DATA COLLECTION FOR THE FOUR AREAS OF MEASUREMENT:AT REST/READING NEWS PAPER/VACUUMING/JUMPING JACKS

“AT REST”

BASELINE PULSE
REPETITION 1- 67
REPETITION 2- 66
REPETITION 3- 59
REPETITION 4- 67
REPETITION 5- 65
MEAN 64.8

BASELINE RESPIRATION
REPETITION 1- 12
REPETITION 2- 14
REPETITION 3- 14
REPETITION 4- 10
REPETITION 5- 12
MEAN 12.4

BASELINE SYSTOLIC
REPETITION 1- 122
REPETITION 2- 125
REPETITION 3- 116
REPETITION 4- 120
REPETITION 5- 122
MEAN 121

BASELINE DIASTOLIC
REPETITION 1- 77
REPETITION 2- 80
REPETITION 3- 71
REPETITION 4- 71
REPETITION 5- 81
MEAN 76

ACTIVITY ONE

READING THE NEWSPAPER/PULSE
REPETITION 1- 67
REPETITION 2- 66
REPETITION 3- 59
REPETITION 4- 63
REPETITION 5- 65
MEAN 64

READING THE NEWSPAPER/RESPIRATION
REPETITION 1- 12
REPETITION 2- 12
REPETITION 3- 10
REPETITION 4- 12
REPETITION 5- 14
MEAN 12

READING THE NEWSPAPER/SYSTOLIC
REPETITION 1- 123
REPETITION 2- 117
REPETITION 3- 116
REPETITION 4- 117
REPETITION 5- 117
MEAN 118

READING THE NEWSPAPER/DIASTOLIC
REPETITION 1- 83
REPETITION 2- 77
REPETITION 3- 71
REPETITION 4- 76
REPETITION 5- 77
MEAN 76.8

ACTIVITY TWO

VACUUMING FOR 2 MINUTES/PULSE
REPETITION 1- 78
REPETITION 2- 80
REPETITION 3- 82
REPETITION 4- 74
REPETITION 5- 101
MEAN 83

VACUUMING FOR 2 MINUTES/RESPIRATION
REPETITION1- 18
REPETITION 2- 18
REPETITION 3- 16
REPETITION 4- 16
REPETITION 5- 16
MEAN 16.8

VACUUMING FOR 2 MINUTES/SYSTOLIC
REPETITION 1- 138
REPETITION 2- 118
REPETITION 3- 123
REPETITION 4- 152
REPETITION 5- 126
MEAN 131.4

VACUUMING FOR 2 MINUTES/DIASTOLIC
REPETITION 1- 96
REPETITION 2- 77
REPETITION 3- 80
REPETITION 4- 88
REPETITION 5- 88
MEAN 85.8

ACTIVITY THREE

25 JUMPING JACKS/PULSE
REPETITION 1- 91
REPETITION 2- 69
REPETITION 3- 83
REPETITION 4- 83
REPETITION 5- 70
MEAN 79.2

25 JUMPING JACKS/RESPIRATION
REPETITION 1- 16
REPETITION 2- 16
REPETITION 3- 16
REPETITION 4- 18
REPETITION 5- 16
MEAN 16.4

25 JUMPING JACKS/SYSTOLIC
REPETITION 1- 116
REPETITION 2- 136
REPETITION 3- 126
REPETITION 4- 116
REPETITION 5- 115
MEAN 121.8

25 JUMPING JACKS/DIASTOLIC
REPETITION 1- 71
REPETITION 2- 78
REPETITION 3- 72
REPETITION 4- 70
REPETITION 5- 77
MEAN 73.6

ABOVE IS MY DATA FED INTO A GRAPH TO SHOW PULSE

ABOVE IS MY DATA FED INTO A GRAPH TO SHOW RESPIRATION

ABOVE IS MY DATA FED INTO A GRAPH TO SHOW BP SYSTOLIC

ABOVE IS MY DATA FED INTO A GRAPH TO SHOW BP DIASTOLIC
__________________________________________________

ANALYSIS OF MY DATA

Analyzing my actual data along with a comparison to my hypothesis leads me to the conclusion that my hypothesis was accurate to my predictions with one exception. Where I was accurate on my predictions was I predicted that activity#2 and #3 would have higher metabolic rates than activity#1 and my "at rest" rates. Where my hypothesis was wrong is found in my diastolic mean rate for jumping jacks was 73.6 which is lower by approximately 3 degrees of my base "at rest" and my "reading the newspaper" rates. This was not a predicted part of my hypothesis. This finding is very surprising to me!When I look at my blood pressure numbers over all for "25 jumping jacks" I am surprised that the numbers are as low as they are. I thought they would be higher. My hypothesis was not very accurate in this area.

PROBLEMS WITH DATA OR TECHNIQUE

I think my data collection techniques were true and accurate. I used skills I learned from this unit to take my pulse and respiration and also used my friends calibrated blood pressure cuff for my metabolic readings. I feel confident on my collection and documentation.

I know that caffeine can affect a persons blood pressure and I drink LARGE amounts of coffee when I have a need to stay up late. Caffeine consumption may have affected my metabolic numbers, I do not know for sure. I may have over-rated the impact that 25 jumping jacks would have on my cardiovascular system so I wrongly assumed my numbers would show more impact.

I also wonder if because I typically walk/run 20+ miles a week that my cardio system may be in much better physical shape than I think it is and that possibly my cardio impact threshold is alot higher than I think it is.I do not know for sure. I would need to formulate a new hypothesis and start over on a new scientific experiment. If I formulated a new hypothesis and re-tested, I would also leave out the caffeine late at night.

CONCLUSION
Overall this experiment has shown me that physical activity causes the heart muscle to work harder to get the blood flowing into other areas of the body. As the heart does its job, it pushes blood and oxygen into all of the areas that require gas exchange, nutrients, waste disposal, and assistance with organ functions to maintain homeostasis within our bodies.

Self and Unit Evaluation

2008-10-21T21:39:00.000-07:00

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?

A- I am proud of my Physiology Exercise Lab project the most. It was fun and challenging to

collect and put together all of the data. I enjoyed applying the unit information toward this lab

assignment. Chapters 5 and 6 were really helpful when formulating my hypothesis and making

educated assumptions on the outcomes. I also liked learning how to make my graphs on the

computer web link! Secondly, I am proud of my Compendium Review for Chapters 5 and 6. I

took alot of time reading, looking up information, and then putting it into my compendium. It

was rewarding because it feels thorough without corners being cut. Thirdly, the aspect I take

pride in throughout this unit is my personal reflection on, “What does food really mean to me?”

My nutritional choices of the past five years for myself do not reflect who I have become and

what I believe. The Ethical Issue for unit two has taken up a lot of my head space in the past

three weeks and I feel like I am getting ready for a “nutritional shift”. I actually think it will be a

“whole body” type of shift, meaning body, mind, and especially spirit. I read through all of the

links you provided for the Ethical Issue and that was only the beginning. I have started to

evaluate my food values and how they relate to the “wholeness” of my life and those I love that I

provide food for. Writing my ethical issue paper gave me a reconnection to my childhood

memories of growing up on a farm. I am very proud of who I am and the people I come from!

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?

A- I think I could have done a more thorough and thoughtful Compendium Review on Immunity
and Microbes/AIDS chapters. I feel like I did the basic coverage and that was all. I have

someone very close to me who has AIDS and at this time I am not dealing with it. The second

area I can improve on are my quiz scores. I get test fear and I freeze up, sometimes I feel

physically ill when I am testing. I am working on relaxing. As I mentioned to you via e-mail, how

ironic that when I accidently opened the test for unit three I got 80 %, which is great for me! I

truly think my regular test anxiety was less because I was really worried about opening and

having to take the wrong test.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?

B+ or an A -

4. How could I perform better in the next unit?

A- Remember that this class has a lot of required work and to plan accordingly with my time. I

will be a non-procrastinator!!

REGARDING THE UNIT

1.At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?

A- I think it was when Mr. Frolich said on the video he was going outside the “box” of the text

book format and wanted me to think about what food really means to me in my life.

2.At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?

A- I felt the most distance when I was using the “Body Mind Spirit” food guide, as well as some

other food calculators. I couldn’t find many of my items listed. I also felt exposed and

uncomfortable when I looked at my listing of foods I ate that day and saw what it really looked

like to me.

3.What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?

A- The most affirming thing I experienced this unit was reading one of my class mates blog

entries and seeing her written piece on Autism and by her sharing a personal bit on how Autism

has touched her life. It’s sort of like the shift I am having internally about some other personal

stuff right now. The blog piece reminds me there are some important things in my life and then

there are some things that I try to make huge and important and they are not at all. More

practically, the time extension was very nice as I have other classes and a full time job and a

regularly committed life.

4.What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling
or confusing?

A- The instructions for the Physiology Exercise Lab Project were not clear to me at first until I

broke it down and did it step by step.

5.What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own
reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)

A- My surprise came when I realized how unspiritual I have been in the area of food in my life. I

have known it for quite awhile now inside myself but I wasn’t ready to even think about it. Food

is supposed to be an expression of love, whether it is for myself or for others I cook and prepare

food for. I think I may have some other issues to deal with surrounding foods that have more to

do with recovery and choosing healthy behaviors for myself. I am familiar with recovery in my

life so I think this may be my next area of spiritual growth and I am looking forward to it!

Ethical Issue: "What Is Food?"

2008-10-14T18:34:00.000-07:00

http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/enlarge/freshfoodsafety.html healthy and nutritious living food

Searching for Fulfillment

About twenty-five years ago I started to notice that the produce at my neighborhood grocery store did not smell like produce anymore. I also noticed that all of the fruits and vegetables looked exactly alike one another. I often felt a bit uneasy pushing my shopping cart through the produce department, looking at the produce bins, not only was the “home grown” aroma missing, but there was also an added unnatural vibrancy to many of the colors I saw as well as a military uniformity to the shapes and sizes of the items. The meat department did not ease my mind in the least bit either. I would walk away from the packaged chicken area wondering how all those perfect little chicken legs in the airtight packages got from the farm to the grocery store looking as if they were produced in a factory instead of raised in the fresh outdoors and in a chicken coup.

I realize now what was happening to me in 1982-83. My past was on a collision course with the present as well as the future. I was wise to be concerned but ignorant as to what it really meant in the bigger scheme of things. Since the early 80’s much has changed agriculturally; many say it has progressed. Today in my “supermarket,”( rarely are they called grocery stores anymore), not only is the farm fresh aroma missing from the fruits and vegetables, but now we even have the man-made sound of a rain shower over the produce bins to alert us to the artificial misting for "longer shelf life" and better curb appeal.
I grew up on a farm in rural Iowa in the late 60’s and 70’s. My family were not typical farmers because my folks worked in the city and they did not farm the fields. We raised and butchered our own animals, we planted a huge garden every year, my Mom canned enough to feed all the people of Polk County, Iowa plus some, we stored vegetables in the root cellar and we harvested fruits from our orchards and robbed honey from the bee hives. We made jellies, wines, saur kraut, home made ketchup, head cheese (boiled pig head), pickles, and gathered our own eggs. We were poor in financial wealth but rich with a full pantry, full freezer, and full bellies.

My parents grew up very poor and in large mid western families. I am sure that they went without more often than not. I remember many times that I would see that pleased look on my Mom’s face as she was wiping down the last of the dozens of full canning jars to be “put up for the winter.” She instilled in me a sense of contentment and joy when it came to preparing, eating, and sharing home made foods. Meals were a gathering time for my family and we would talk and visit during our meals. We typically had meat, potatoes, vegetables, salad and a desert. Left overs were always eaten at the next days lunch meal.

I am so grateful for my farm upbringing today! I am blessed by the values I gained from my parents and also from my childhood experiences. I have been able to carry on some of my family traditions, especially at the holiday season. I love to make cookies and fudge and then put together Christmas plates for friends, co-workers, and neighbors. Every year when I do my ritual, I feel my Mom’s presence with me and it brings me great joy and peace. My Mom passed away 15 years ago and often in the hustle/bustle of my life I forget to “feel” her around me. For me there is a definite Spiritual connection between food, family, love, and Spirit. She gave that connection to me along with many other gifts.

In the world today, I sense an emptiness and an impersonal vacuumed quality about food preparation and manufacturing, its not even really “growing” food anymore. It is difficult to find “real” foods in supermarkets. Companies can create, vitamin fortified, high fibered, natural flavored, 10% natural fruit juiced, products that are meant to replace all the fresh produce items that are not as profitable to the big manufactures any longer.

The fast paced life style of our society has affected how we think about food. Fast food is almost a daily staple item for most people. Convenience, speed, and easy access propel many people to accept “fast food” as real sustenance in their daily lives. I’ve personally known a small boy, about two years old, who actually knew the McDonalds golden arches before he knew big Bird or Barney! The empty calories that are manufactured and sold as food at restaurants are not filling to a persons stomach or their soul.

My final thought is that food production today is immensely different than it was even 20 years ago. We now have at least one entire generation who has only been exposed to this mass production, mass marketing of unnatural food product. I don’t think they realize what food and nutrition have evolved to at this point in time. I think with marketing strategies and advertisements the overall opinion is that food is more nutritious today than its ever been. I for one, am not in agreement with that sentiment.

A Day of Food

2008-10-14T18:32:00.000-07:00

My Day of documenting everything I consumed:

From the time I got out of bed at 4:45 am and went to bed at approximatrly 11:00pm that night, I wrote down everything I ate and drank.

I consumed 6 cups of coffee throughout the day-my cups are larger than the 6 oz. choice listed on "Balance Mind Body and Soul."..Mine are closer to 10-12 oz. cups w/ sweet n low packet in each cup which has no nutritional value. 0 calories

Items listed below were not on the list of choices:
I consumed 2 -20 oz. watter bottles mixed with Crystal Light nutritional value on package: 5 calories per pack and no other nutritional value. 10 cal. total

I used 2 tablespoons of Ranch dressing on my salad of 4 oz.romaine, 1 egg, 2 oz. cheese, and 2 crumbled sausage patties. The Ranch dressing per serving has 140 calories, 14 gram fat, carbohydrates 2, saturated fats 2.5 gram, fiber 0, trans fat 0, sugars 1 gram, cholesterol 10 mg., protein 1, sodium 260 mg. 140 cal. total

I follow a low carbohydrate eating lifestyle/approach and on this particular day I kept my carbs at 18 total. I have been eating the low carb way since the middle of 2003 with a few minor time periods where I did not pay attention to my carb count. I have had food and weight issues since I was 11-12 years of age and throughout most of my life I have been what I consider too weight focused and also over weight. Since 2003 when I accidently stumbled upon the Atkins philosophy ( on the HSN channel in the middle of the night eating frozen cookie dough mindlessly), I have been able to de-focus from food somewhat and also to lose weight quickly initially and then take it off fairly easily (with LOTS of exercise!) and mindfulness of what I am consuming when I put some pounds back on over time. I initially dropped about 35 pounds back in 03-04 and then put a few lbs. back on 12-15 lbs. but started walking/running and returning to the Induction phase of Atkins, which is keeping under 10 carbs a day to take the weight gain off. Fifteen months ago I quit smoking (after 32 years of smoking) so I put about 15-18 lbs on after quitting- but in the past 3 months I have been able to lose about 9 of those pounds so I still have 6-9 more to drop. The Atkins works great for me but I think about and worry sometimes because I don't eat fruit. I rarely eat veggies. I eat tons of meat, eggs, pork rinds, and cheese but NOT living food. My medical labs always come back great on my cholesterol and liver functions and also my blood sugar is always right about 80 everytime I've checked it. I have tons of energy, can run half marathons and hike down to the bottom of the Grand Canyon (I did it last weekend and it was soooo amazing!!) My body and system thrives without processed sugar products being a part of my diet. I have occasionally "went on a binge" where I almost compulsively am obsessed with some high sugar food item (like canned frosting) and if I let my mind trick me into thinking/believing I will "just eat one spoonful" then I am done for!!! I will usually eat the entire container, throw away the evidence, and then go through a physical sugar cycle of detox. This doesn't occur very often fortunately. The low-carb idea works well for me because I have some foods that I can eat without limit as long as they do not contain carbs. This is helpful for me. Food tends to control me less today.I think my metabolism works well with very low carbs, much better than with the way I was eating before.

www.medindia.net Atkins nutritional food pyriamid

www.mattscott5000.com Atkins posing with acceptable foods for the eating style he developed

Three Questions:

How healthy a daily diet do you think this is?

A- I think the diet I ate for the day was "healthy" because I focus my attention on carbohydrates, however, I have been recently questioning my choices in respect to my consuption, or lack of, living foods.

Why?

My dietary choices follow the Atkins approach. I feel very healthy and also perform well in activities. My physician has been supportive of my eating style.

What would you change about this days eating, if anything?

A- I would not change anything- this is a typical day for me.

Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful?

A- I think this type of tracking is useful and also helpful.

Why or why not?

A- It is helpful because I was actually surprised at my carb intake, it was more than I had predicted. I think this may be a typical outcome- numbers being more than what a person would think them to be. It is a good system to see various parts of nutritional values broken down.

Lab Write-Up/ Blood Pressure

2008-10-13T13:15:00.001-07:00

www.topnews.in/usa/files/Blood%20Pressure.jpg blood pressure Sphygmomanometer photo with explanation and guidelines

On Line Lab/ Blood Pressure Experiment
The virtual Blood Pressure Experiment consisted of five (5) groupings of male subjects and five (5) groupings of female subjects. The groupings were broken down into age brackets of 11-17, 18-24, 25-34, 35-44, and 45-54 years of age.
The purpose behind Oxygen/Circulation/Immunity: Online Lab for Human Biology was to show that I had gained knowledge about taking a persons pulse, blood pressure/hypertension, and also the factors that can lead to and cause hypertension.
From a web site I looked at (listed below)
http://www.disabled-world.com/artman/publish/bloodpressurechart.shtml
I learned a wealth of information about blood pressure. I found out that there are many indicators and factors leading to a person having high blood pressure. Long term (chronic) high blood pressure is called, “hypertension”. Hypertension can damage blood vessels, lead to heart attacks and strokes.

Some of the most common factors are, age, obesity (30%) over ideal weight, alcohol consumption, sodium intake, lack of exercise, too much stress, smoking, heredity, gender, and race. Some of these items are completely out of a persons control, however, the good news is that many of these factors are decided by the persons choices! Things such as exercise, alcohol consumption, smoking, sodium intake, and obesity, are all results of our lifestyle and choices.

This piece of information is especially important because the items we can not change CAN be influenced in a positive direction by the factors we DO have control over. By this I mean that I can not change my family history of high blood pressure or my age of 47, however, I can choose to exercise, and maintain my weight within healthy guidelines, I can choose to NOT smoke, and also watch my sodium intake. The choices that I make, and the steps that I take, (literally) to help my blood pressure stay in the normal range can at least help to stabilize or balance out the “not in my control” factors.

Normal Blood Pressure - Blood pressure reading below 120/80 is considered normal.
High Blood Pressure - Blood pressure of 140/90 or higher is considered high blood pressure. If one or both numbers are usually high, you have high blood pressure.

Below are the journal questions from the lab write-up virtual experiment:

Q#1-State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.

The relationship of age and gender can be problematic to blood pressure in the following way; As a person ages whether they are male or female, on an average, their blood pressure has a natural tendency to increase on both the systolic (top) and the diastolic (lower) numbers of the blood pressure.

Q#2- Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.

- My hypothesis is that as a person ages, regardless of their gender, there is a good possibility that blood pressure will increase. Men have a higher risk of hypertension than women, however, as stress factors continue to escalate for females in today’s world, they too have higher health risks regarding blood pressure, heart attacks and strokes. The average blood pressure for a specific group of people will be affected by the natural signs of aging in the body. As men age they generally do not fair as well as females when looking at high blood pressure averages. Men may also make much less healthy choices as far as food/nutrient intake and life style choices, such as alcohol consumption, smoking, and not enough exercise. The choices made throughout the years directly affect the heart and the circulatory system. High cholesterol, plaque build up in the circulation system and sedentary life style influence blood pressure. The key factor I think is obesity, which is heavily influenced by the amount of exercise and food intake (caloric) choices.
Q#3-How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis?

I will pay close attention to the blood pressure increase between both the male and the female subjects as the age brackets increase. I will also pay attention to the “factors” that are common on the individual persons chart to figure out what the commonalities are.
What steps will you follow?

I will look at the health risk factors that can be applied to each of the subjects that have hypertension in my experiment. I also want to look closely at any subjects with high blood pressure who only have, “Family History” as a health risk factors to be listed.

What data will you record?

I will follow age and gender first. I will look for weight within optimal range. I will look for family history and also “life choices” to find any trends.

Q#4- Analyze the result of your experiment.
Explain any patterns you observed.

Men and women both show increases in blood pressure as they age. Women do not show the amount of average increase to the same level that males do in my experiment. Up until 17 years of age males and females are almost identical. Men seem to increase on the average earlier in the life cycle then females do. Women average closer in their systolic number until they reach the 44 year age group when they jump 9 points after that. Men’s systolic steadily increases throughout the five age groups with the biggest jump being to the 18-24 age group.

Q#5-Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?

I do think my hypothesis is supported by the outcome because I stated that on the average a person would experience higher blood pressure and that men more so than females. My conclusion is that age and gender do play definite roles in hypertension .

Q#6-During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?

Yes I did get reads that were outside of the normal range starting with males in the 35 + age groups and then in the females group 45+.

Q#7-List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based al range.on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?

I got five (5) abnormal reads on males between ages 35-44 and then seven (7) abnormal males age bracket 45-54. I also found two (2) abnormal reads on females between the ages of 45-54. I found 5 of the males to have family history. One of the females as well. I also found obesity to be of medical note on eight (8) of the 12 males and on one of the females. On a total of 9 of 14 subjects that had hypertension, one of their health factors was “obesity”. I think that a person maintaining a healthy weight can be critical to high blood pressure. I found lack of exercise, alcohol consumption, and sodium intake on various subjects. Family history (hereditary) seems to be a strong indicator of hypertension.

Q#8-What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?

Obesity affects a persons cardiovascular/heart system because of the over stress that the heart muscle has to tolerate. The circulatory system has to work harder to accomplish the same amount of product (output) which includes oxygen and other gases within the body in an overweight person. The persons entire body must work harder to keep up with the added strain. In one of my females the only warning factor was +41 lb.over optimal weight. In one of my men it appeared one of his factors was ‘race’ and he was also +43 lbs over optimal weight. I think obesity can be the cause of hypertension, but I think it is influenced by other influences such as sodium intake, lack of exercise, high caloric/fatty foods.

Below is of my blood pressure comparison table for male and female/age catagories:

Below is my Graph that shows where male female differences lie when comparing the systolic and diastolic numbers:

Compendium Review Unit Two:Major Topic Two/Nutrition/Chapter Eight

2008-10-06T05:08:00.000-07:00

www.neatsolutions.com/Curriculum%20Resources/. Google search for nutrition images

Chapter Eight: Digestive System and Nutrition

Chapter concepts :

8.1 Overview of Digestion

8.2 First Part of the Digestive Tract

8.3 The Stomach and Small Intestine

8.4 Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions

8.5 The Large Intestine and Defecation

8.6 Nutrition and Weight Control

http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/enlarge/small-intestine-blood-vessels.html
This colored scanning micrograph shows a cast of blood vessels from the external wall of the small intestine. Measuring about 22 feet (6.7 meters) in length, the small intestine performs most of the major digestion and absorption of nutrients. The walls of the small intestine are lined with millions of projections called villi, which absorb and transmit nutrients into the bloodstream. Photograph by Susumu Nishinaga

8.1 Overview of Digestion
The digestive system is located in the gastrointestinal tract, called the GI tract.
The purpose of digestion is to hydrolyze the macromolecules, which are carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Digestion of these macromolecules into “unit molecules” must occur because the macromolecules are too large to pass over the plasma membranes.

Unit Molecules:

Sugars

Amino Acids

Fatty Acids

Glycerols

Accessory Organs include: Salivary Glands- Liver- Gall Bladder- Pancreas

Digestive Tract Organs include: Mouth- Pharynx- Esophagus- Stomach- Small Intestine- Large Intestine- Rectum- Anus

Ingestion- is our mouth taking in food.

Digestion- can be mechanical or chemical

Mechanical- food is divided into pieces and can be acted upon by the digestive enzymes-occurs mainly in the mouth and the stomach

Chemical- begins in the mouth and ends in the small intestines-thick semi fluid mass is called chyme as it reaches the small intestines-excludes the large intestine as there are no digestive enzymes present -

Movement- within the GI tract is vital for the tract to fulfill the other bodily duties/functions within the body -

Absorption- unit molecules produced digestion enter cells lining the tract as they cross the GI tract wall- nutrients then enter blood stream to go to cells next -

Elimination- Molecules that can not be digested- waste that passes through the anus-

Wall of the Digestive Tract
The actual GI tract begins at the mouth and ends at the anus.
The central space that contains digestion is the Lumen.
The wall of the GI tract has four layers.

Layer one- next to the lumen- Mucosa-commonly called mucous membrane- produces mucous, which protects the wall from enzymes-Diverticulosis is a condition where portion of mucous membrane has pushed through the layers to make pouches where food can then collect.

Layer two-Submucosa- broad band and loose connective tissue-contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves- carries nutrients- a disorder that can begin in layer two is IBD (Inflammatory Bowel Disease).

Layer three- Muscularis- contains two layers of smooth muscle-contractions occur to help movement of digested food-This layer can be the area where IBS (Irritated Bowel Syndrome) begins- stress may be underlying cause of IBS.

Layer four- Serosa- secretes a serous fluid- are is connected to internal lining of abdominal cavity-appendix inflammation (called Peritonitis) can be life threatening condition in which the appendix must be removed.

8.2 First Part of the Digestive Tract

The mouth, pharynx, and esophagus are parts of the first part of GI tract.

The Mouth
Mechanical and chemical digestion begins in the mouth.
Parts of the interior of the mouth are hard palate and the soft palate.

There are three pairs of salivary glands.

Teeth play an important role in the mechanical breakdown of food to be digested.
When food is swallowed the tongue works in conjunction with the soft palate by closing off the nasal passages.

The epiglottis closes off larynx so bolus of food enters esophagus.

Swallowing can be voluntary but it is also a reflex when food/drink pushes against the pharynx. Rhythmic contraction pushes food along esophagus and all other organs of digestive tract, called Peistalsis.

Sphincters are muscles that encircle tubes and act as valves.

Heartburn is the result of acid reflux. This happens when some of the food escapes into the esophagus. Vomiting occurs when there is contraction of the thoratic and abdominal cavities.

http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/enlarge/digestive-system.html

Once food is swallowed, it passes through the esophagus into the stomach, the pink organ shown here above the yellow pancreas. A large, muscular chamber, the stomach produces digestive juices like pepsin, lipase, and hydrochloric acid, which digest and dissolve stomach contents.
Illustration by PureStock

8.3 The Stomach and Small Intestine

The stomach and small intestine finish the digestion responsibility in the body.
Stomach is thick walled and lies beneath the diaphram.
The stomach is continuous from esophagus to small intestine.
Stomach stores food, initiates the digestion of protein, controls movement in the small intestine.

Stomach has four layers.

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0072986867/391204/chapt08_lecture.ppt#257,1,Chapter 8 from the powerpoint presentation for chapter 8

Stomach muscles have three muscle layers and mucosa has folds called rugae.

Gastric glands put out mucus, HCL, pepsin, which is an enzyme that digests protein.

Peristalsis controls secretion of chyme into small intestines at pyloric sphincter.

Small intestine is approx. 18 feet long and the large intestine is only about 4 ½ feet long.

Small intestine contains enzymes to digest all foods, especially carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
Enzymes are secreted by the pancreas.

Small intestinal wall absorbs the molecules of sugar, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol.

The mucosa is modified for absorption.

Lactose Intolerance

The brush border enzyme, Lactase, is used to digest lactose. People who do not have this enzyme are “lactose intolerant”.

Characteristics of ‘lactose intolerance” are:

Diarrhea
Gas
Bloating
Abdominal cramps

The indigestible lactose causes fluid retention.

Digestion/Absorption of Nutrients:

Carbohydrates are ingested-pancreatic amylase-maltase-glucose-to blood capillary/ph balance =basic

Proteins are ingested-trypsin-peptides-peptidase-flows w/amino acids-to blood capillary/ph balance=basic

Fats are ingested-bile salts+fat globules form into emulsification-lipase-monoglycerides and free fatty acids-chylomicron-lymphatic capillary/ph balance =basic

Figure 8.7 page 151

Starch is digested to glucose

Proteins are digested to amino acids

Fats are emulsified by bile/digested to monoglycerides

Obesity: Diabetes Type 2 and Cardiovascular Disease

Absorption of nutrients in the small intestine impact our health greatly.Too much sugar leads to obesity and can also lead to Type 2 Diabetes.

Health Improvement can occur with a healthy nutritional diet, exercise, and losing weight. The hormone insulin operates within our bodies much more efficiently when we choose a healthy life style.

Cardiovascular Disease is more probable with high fatty acid levels of Type 2 Diabetes.By choosing a healthy eating and behaviors, the chance of blindness, kidney disease, and cardiovascular disease decrease.

8.4 Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions

Three Accessory Organs

Pancreas- pancreatic cells produce pancreatic juice. Pancreatic Amylase digests starch, Trypsin digests protein, and lipase digests fats.

The pancreas is an endocrine gland. It secretes the hormone insulin.

“Hormones” are substances created by one set of cells and used by another set of cells within the body.

Liver- the largest metabolic and major gland in the body-The liver contains 100,000 lobules. The liver receives blood via hepatic portal vein from capillary bed of GI tract. Liver filters blood in capillaries of lobules. The liver is a storage organ. The liver removes these things from blood: iron, vit. A,D,E,K, and B12. The liver makes plasma proteins and regulates quantity of cholesterol in blood. Bile salts are produced using cholesterol.

Bile is stored in the gall bladder. Gall stones result when the liquid hardens in the gall bladder. The liver can convert glycerol from fats and also amino acids to glucose molecules.

Liver disorders: Hepatitis and cirrhosis are two extremely serious liver disorders that affect the entire liver and also prevent repair from damage/disease. Both of these ailments can and are life threatening.

Regulation of Digestive Secretions

The nervous system is in control of the digestive juice secretion along with digestive hormones. The parasympathetic nervous system responds immediately to the sight or the smell of food by stimulating gastric juice production. Gastrin hormone is produced in the stomach when a person eats a high proteined meal. Gastrin enters the blood stream and activates the gastric glands. Cells within the duodenal wall produce CCK and HCI and assist with food digestion by entering blood stream and activating the pancreas to produce more pancreatic juice.

8.5 The Large Intestine and Defecation

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0072986867/391204/chapt08_lecture.ppt#257,1,Chapter 8 from powerpoint presentation for chapter 8

The large intestine includes cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. The cecum is the blind end of the large intestine. The cecum is thought to help fight off infections in humans. The colon includes ascending colon-works its way to the rectum-rectum opens at anus where defecation takes place.

Functions of the Large Intestine

The large intestine absorbs water which prevents dehydration in our bodies. Large intestine absorbs vitamins produced by bacteria. The large intestine forms feces. Feces are ¾ water and ¼ solids. Defecation is also a function of the Large intestine.

Disorders of the Colon and Rectum

There are many disorders that can occur in the Large intestine and many of these are avoidable with good life choices such as good diet and good bowel habits.

Diarrhea/mainly caused by infections in the lower intestinal tract.

Constipation/feces are dry and hard/chronic constipation is often associated with hem raids

Diverticulosis/ occurrence of small pouches of mucosa that push through weak spots of muscular tissue.

IBS/muscular is contracts powerfully but without the normal coordination.

IBD (Colitis) inflammatory disorder-

Polyps/ Cancer- small growths arising from epithelial lining.

8.6 Nutrition and Weight Control

Obesity has doubled in our country in the past 20 years.

Almost 1/3 of adults are considered obese.

Obesity is now much more common in children and teens.

Obesity is rising world-wide.

Experts believe the correct way to address obesity is to eat balanced kinds of food and to get enough exercise.

How Obesity is Defined

Below is my BMI estimated value from:http://www.findmybmi.org
We have calculated your Body Mass Index based on your weight of 165 pounds and your height of 5 feet and 9 inches. In the report below you will see personalized information on where your BMI stands compared to others, as well as an explanation of what your BMI number means. In addition we will show you common health problems that women of age 47 and older experience with similar BMI levels to yours.
You have a BMI of 24.36. This BMI puts you under the body classification of "Average" according to the CDC (US Center for Disease Control & Prevention).Your risk for the following health conditions is: Very Low
Hypertension
Dyslipidemia
Type 2 diabetes
Coronary heart disease
Stroke
Gallbladder disease
Osteoarthritis
Sleep apnea
Endometrial, breast, and colon cancer

Obesity is defined as Body Mass Index (BMI) of 32 or higher-

Healthy BMI is 19.1-26.4

Overweight BMI is 26.5- 31.1

Obese BMI is 32.3- 39.9

Morbidly obese BMI is 40 or more

The BMI number is how much of your weight is due to adipose tissue, which means fat. The taller a person is the more weight a person can generally carry on their frame without it being considered body fat. The BMI number should only be used as a general guide.

The BMI does not consider a persons fitness, bone structure, or gender.

Health Focus page 157

The most sensible/healthy way to lose weight is simple: eat a variety of foods, watch your weight and caloric intake, and exercise.

http://www.self.com/fitness Google picture from Self Magazine on exercise

Trendy Diets:

The Pritikin Diet follows high amounts of carbohydrates and fiber in whole grains and vegetables consumption. Diet is very low fat.

The Atkin’s Diet follows a very low carbohydrate intake. Philosophy is by consuming high amounts of protein and fats our bodies will burn stored body fat. Scientifically believed to threaten homeostasis with a strain on maintaining glucose levels and stressing the kidneys with excretion of protein breakdown.

The Zone Diet follows “healthy” fats and sugar carbs-bringing back these two extreme diets to a middle balance.

Prescription drugs have been manufactured to fight obesity and help with weight loss. Dangers and side effects are common with many prescriptions .Heart problems, and elevated blood pressure are two health concerns associated with diet drugs.

Surgical procedures are becoming more common in todays society for the morbidly obese. Gastroplasty, gastric by pass, and gastric banding are three types of procedures that are routinely recommended today.

These types of procedures produce results however there can be lifetime post surgery problems as well. Chronic diarrhea, vomiting, intolerance to dairy, dehydration, and nutritional deficiencies are common.

Liposuction is also becoming more common for over weight people to choose to remove fat cells from localized areas. Liposuction is not a long term solution.

People who are looking for quick fixes may be on an unending merry go round but may get positive long term results with the old fashioned-Eat right, Watch food intake, Exercise!

Classes of Nutrients

Carbohydrates are simple or complex- Glucose is a simple carbohydrate the body prefers as an energy source- brain cells require glucose- the body is unable to convert fatty acids to glucose-refined grains should be minimized in the diet-during refinement fiber and vitamins are also removed so basically the starch is all that remains. Complex carbohydrates beans, peas, nuts, and fruits are good source of vitamins, minerals, and fiber-

Proteins are digested to amino acids which cells use to synthesize hundreds of cellular proteins- there are 20 amino acids/8 of these are considered essential amino acids- children can not grow without the essential amino acids-eggs, milk products, meat, poultry, and food derived from animals all contain the essential amino acids needed- amino acids do not store in our bodies-a daily supply is needed-

Lipids include fats, oils and cholesterol- too many lipids can be harmful to health- cardiovascular disease is caused by plaque build up in the arteries-

Minerals are divided into major and trace.

Major minerals are constituents of cells and body fluids and structural parts of tissues-
Trace minerals are parts of larger molecules-

Calcium is a major mineral-

Vitamin D is a partner to calcium-

Sodium helps regulate the water in the body-

Vitamins are organic compounds used for metabolic purposes- Many vitamins are enzyme helpers (co-enzymes)- Vitamins C, E, and A are believed to defend the body against free radicals- Vitamin D is a molecule that is converted in the skin by sun exposure-

How to Plan Nutritious Meals

A person cannot normally become fat without taking in mre food energy (calories) than is needed by the body to burn- Typical amount of calories for a woman is 2000 a day/For a man it is 2500 a day-

Eat a food variety-
Eat more of these; fruit, vegetables, and whole grains-
Eat less of saturated/trans fats, high sugar and salts-
Physical activity each and every day!

Eating Disorders

askville.amazon.com Cat seeing himself as a lion/self esteem and perception tool for self care and positive self imag

People with eating disorders are unsatisfied with their body image- Many have a skewed perception of what they look like in reality- they often do not see themselves the way the rest of the world sees them-

Obesity, Anorexia nervosa, and Bulimia Nervosa are serious disorders that can lead to malnutrition, disability, and death-

anorexia is a psychological disorder of getting fat which results in starvation and bizarre food rituals-
Bulimia results in binge eating and then purging (vomiting) often difficult to spot because their body weight may be close to “normal” and they are experts at concealment of their behaviors-

Compendium Review Unit Two: Major Topic One Oxygen/ Microbes/ Immunity Chapters Five, Six, and Seven and Web Links

2008-10-03T16:45:00.000-07:00

http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/wallpaper/heart-angiogram.html
Picture of a healthy heart

Chapter Five: Cardiovascular System/ Heart and Blood Vessels

5.1 Overview of the Cardiovascular System

5.2 The Types of Blood Vessels

5.3 The Heart Is a Double Pump

5.4 Features of the Cardiovascular System

5.5 Two Cardiovascular Pathways

5.6 Exchange at the Capillaries

5.7 Cardiovascular Disorders

Bioethical Focus pg.101

5.1 Overview of the Cardiovascular System

The heart and the blood vessels make up the cardiovascular system.
In humans there is always blood in the blood vessels
Heart beats pump blood into blood vessels

The purpose of circulation is to bathe the tissue with fluids, (not directly the cell itself).
Circulation of blood removes waste products from tissue fluids and also nourishes the tissue fluids with oxygen and nutrients. Blood must be refreshed to be able to perform circulation. Blood is refreshed in the lungs, the intestines, and the kidneys.
Lungs: carbon dioxide is removed and oxygen enters
Kidneys: blood is purified of waste material and water and salts are retained
Intestines: nutrients enter here

The Liver
The liver (largest organ) takes up amino acids and returns proteins in the blood, which assists in transportation of fats.
The liver also removes any toxins that have entered the blood at the intestines.

There are four functions of the cardiovascular system:
1-Blood moves through vessels as the heart contracts and generates blood pressure.
2-Blood vessels transport blood, from heart, to arteries, capillaries, and veins, then returns to the heart.
3-Exchanges at capillaries refresh the blood then tissue fluid (interstitial fluid).
4-As needed by the body, heart and blood vessels regulate the blood flow.

http://www.medical-definitions.net/Cardiac-conduction.htm the heart chambers and vessels

The Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system assists the cardiovascular system by collecting excess tissue fluid and returning it.
When fluid enters the lymphatic vessels it is called �lymph�.
Lymph and Blood are both considered �fluid tissues�.

5.2 The Types of Blood Vessels

There are three types of blood vessels.

1-Arteries (from the heart) The arterial wall has three layers. Arterioles are very small arteries that either dilate or restrict to regulate the blood pressure.

2-Capillaries (exchange) The arterioles branch into capillaries. Capillaries are very small but cover large surface area. Capillary beds are present in all regions of the body. Only certain capillary beds are open in the body depending on what function the organs are performing.

3-Veins (to the heart) Venules are small veins that drain blood from capillaries then join to form vein. Venules have three layers. The walls of veins are thin. Valves only allow blood to flow toward the heart when open and prevent backflow when closed. Valves are present in veins that carry blood against the gravity pull typically in lower body extremities. Vein wall are thin and therefore expand a lot. Veins act as blood reservoirs.

5.3 The Heart Is a Double Pump

santacruz.indymedia.org "your heart is the size of a fist"

-The human heart is approximately the size of a fist with a clasped hand around it. The heart is a muscular, tilted organ, located directly behind sternum.
-The largest part of the heart is cardiac muscle tissue called, Myocardium.
-The heart is surrounded by Pericardium, which is a thick sac that protects and supports the heart.
-The Septum wall separates the heart into a left and right side.

There are four chambers in the heart.
1-Right Atrium-located in the upper portion
2-Left Atrium-located in the upper portion
3-Right Ventricle-located in the lower portion
4-Left Ventricle-located in the lower portion

Heart valves force blood to move in a forward direction.
Atrioventricular valves (AV) lie between the atria and the ventricles.
Support for these valves come from fibrous strings called chordae tendinae.
The AV on the right is called the Tricuspid and the AV on the left is called the bicuspid (or the mitral valve).
The other two valves are called the Semi-lunar valves.

This is how blood passes through the heart:

-The superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava enter the right atrium.
-The right atrium sends blood to the right ventricle.
-The right ventricle sends blood through the pulmonary semi lunar valve into pulmonary trunk-which divides into two pulmonary arteries and into the lungs.
-Four pulmonary veins enter the left atrium.

The left ventricle sends blood through aortic semi lunar valve into aorta to the blood proper.
O2 poor blood and O2 rich blood never mix due to the way blood passes through the heart. Blood must pass through the lungs to get from the right side to the left side. The heart is a double pump. It sends blood through the lungs from the right ventricle and blood throughout the body from the left ventricle. The left ventricle has a more difficult job. The pumping heart sends blood out under pressure to the arteries. The blood pressure is greater in the aorta because the left side of the heart is the stronger side. Blood pressure decreases as cross-sectional arteries and arterioles increases.The Heartbeat is Controlled

1-Every heartbeat is called a Cardiac Cycle.
2-Systole refers to contraction of the chambers * this is the working phase
3-Diastole refers to relaxation of the chambers * this is the resting phase
4-Contractions (heartbeats) approximately 70 times a minute.

http://rds.yahoo.com/http://www.allina.com/CCS/doc/Encyclopedia/2/19613.htm the heart beat

Internal Control of Heartbeat

The rhythmical contractions occurs because of the (intrinsic) internal conduction system.

Nodal Tissue has muscular and nervous characteristics located in two regions of the heart.

Sinoatrial Node is located in upper dorsal wall of right atrium.

Atrioventricular Node is located in the base of right atrium.

Signal is sent to Atrioventricular bundle, then branches to the Purkinje fibers where the intercalated disks allow the electrical current to flow from cell to cell.

The SA node is called the Pacemaker because it keeps the heartbeat regular.

The AV node sends out impulses to keep the heart beating (but slower) if the SA system fails to work properly.

External Control of Heartbeat

The body has an (extrinsic) external way of regulating the heartbeat.

The Medulla Oblongata is the cardiac control center and is located in the brain.

With the parasympathetic and sympathetic parts of the nervous system, the beat of a heart can be altered.

The parasympathetic promotes resting and the sympathetic promotes �fight or flight� responses.

There are two hormones which are released by the adrenal medulla, that also stimulate the heart: (1) Epinephrine (2) Norepinephrine

5.4 Features of the Cardiovascular System

1-Left ventricle contracts-
2-Pressurized blood sent to aorta-
3-Progressive decrease in blood pressure as blood moves through arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venues, and the veins.
4-The rhythmic expansion/recoil of arterial wall is felt in the body as a pulse-
5-Homeostasis can occur because the beating heart creates pressure to propel blood flow into the arteries and arterioles. The arterioles lead to capillaries where exchange with tissue fluid occurs.

Blood Pressure is the pressure of blood against the wall of a blood vessel.

Sphygmomanometer is an instrument used to measure blood pressure.

Systolic Pressure-highest arterial pressure which is reached during ejection of blood from heart-
Diastolic Pressure-lowest pressure occurs while heart ventricles are relaxing-
Normal �resting� BP for a young adult is 120/80.
High BP is called �Hypertension�
Low BP is called �Hypotension�
The more distance from the left ventricle, the lower the BP
Blood moves slowly through capillaries.
The slow process allows time for exchange of substances between blood in capillaries and surrounding tissues
Blood flow velocity increases in veins

Venous return is dependent upon three (3) factors:

1-Skeletal Muscle Pump
2-Respirator Pump
3-Valves in veins

Here is how the skeletal muscle pump works:The skeletal muscles contract-they compress the weak walls of the veins-this causes blood to move past valve-blood cannot flow backward!
Here is how the respiratory pump works: The chest expands as we inhale-this reduces pressure in thoracic cavity-blood flows from higher to lower pressure-blood cannot flow backward! The veins return blood to the heart.

5.5 Two Cardiovascular Pathways

There are two circuits in which the blood flows.
1-Pulmonary Circuit-Exchange of gases
2-Systematic Circuit-Exchanges with Tissue Fluid

Coronary Circulation

Coronary Arteries serve the heart muscle. They are the first branches off the aorta. They can become clogged due to their small diameter.

Hepatic Portal System

Hepatic Portal Vein takes blood from the capillary bed in the liver. The liver stores glucose as glycogen and synthesizes blood proteins from amino acids or stores them. The liver purifies the blood of pathogens. The hepatic vein leaves the liver and goes to the inferior vena cava.

5.6 Exchange at the Capillaries

Two forces control the movement of fluid through capillary wall-
1-Blood pressure- causes water to move from capillary to tissue fluid-
2-Osmotic pressure- causes water to move in the opposite direction-

At the Arterial end of capillary, BP is higher than the Osmotic pressure of blood-
Osmotic pressure occurs because of salts and plasma proteins-
Blood pressure is higher than Osmotic pressure at the arterial end, therefore water exit�s a capillary at this end.
Midway along capillary the two forces cancel each other out.
The venule end of capillary where the BP has fallen the Osmotic pressure is greater than blood pressure and water moves into the capillary.
Almost equal amounts of fluid leave the capillary and then return.
Some excess tissue fluid is collected by the lymphatic capillaries.

5.7 Cardiovascular Disorders

The leading cause of untimely death in the Western countries is Cardiovascular Disease.
Disorders of the blood vessels:

High Blood Pressure-Also known as Hypertension- This is when blood moves through the arteries at a higher pressure than normal. Hypertension is present when the systolic (top number) is 140 or greater and the diastolic (lower number) is 90 or greater. The diastolic number influences and is looked at more critically if medical intervention is being considered. Hypertension is common in people who have atherosclerosis (plaque build up, including fatty materials and cholesterol).Atherosclerosis is thought to be caused by smoking and diets rich in lipids and cholesterol.

Stroke, Heart Attack, and Aneurysm-

http://healthinfection.blogspot.com/2008/07/heart-and-circulatory-system-problem.html heart disease

These three heart health problems are associated with hypertension and atherosclerosis. A stroke can occur when a small cranial arteriole bursts or is blocked by an embolus. A heart attack occurs when a portion of the heart muscle dies due to lack of oxygen. When a coronary artery becomes partially blocked the individual experiences angina pectoris (pain in left arm). When a full blockage takes place then a heart attack occurs. An aneurysm is a ballooning of a blood vessel, usually the abdominal artery or arteries leading to the brain. If a major vessel bursts death is likely.

Treatments that help prevent cardiovascular disorders:

Dissolving blood clots is helpful in some cases. Aspirin is sometimes prescribed as it reduces stickiness of platelets.
Treating clogged arteries- By pass surgery is often used. Another alternative is called the �stent�, which is a small metal mesh cylinder that holds a coronary artery open after a blockage has been cleared.

Disorders of the Heart

Heart Failure is when the heart no longer pumps as it should. This is occurring more frequently because the survival rate from heart attacks has risen, thus more people have damaged hearts so are vulnerable to heart failure.

Heart transplants are fairly common today. The number of people waiting for transplants far out number the organs available to be used.

Bioethical Focus - Paying for an Unhealthy Lifestyle:

Cardiovascular disease is the number one killer in the United States and also is one of the most expensive to treat. Cardiovascular disease is preventable. The causes of CD are mainly personal choices. Poor diet, lack of exercise, and smoking are all precursors for possible CD and 100% within a persons ability to NOT do! The person who chooses the health risk behaviors already puts themselves in a bracket that is a higher financial cost to them. The dilemma is who should pay for their health care? They already are in a higher risk/more expensive insurance cost bracket. When the insurance runs out, who then pays? Should other tax payers be made financially responsible? Should the government pay for their risky behavior choices? One argument stands on the premise that the high numbers of �CD� is exaggerated, and not really as extreme as some say it is.

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/19233.htm daily exercise for healthy living

Don't smoke Uncle Sam
http://www.msghelp.net/showthread.php?tid=72638

Living a healthy lifestyle,regular exercise, healthy eating habits and choices, and NOT smoking are all beneficial to a persons quality and quantity of life! The one point that stands out to be true is that healthier living choices by the individuals who may currently choose unhealthy options, would benefit themselves personally and others who pay the costs for their poor choices. The costs to themselves and others can be emotional, physical, and of course financial. The costs to a persons life who suffers from Cardiovascular Disease is far more expensive than the costs and effort needed to make better life choices by choosing healthy habits.

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Chapter Six : Cardiovascular System/ Blood

6.1 Blood: An Overview

6.2 Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen

6.3 White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease

6.4 Platelets and Blood Clotting

6.5 Blood Typing and Transfusions

6.6 Homeostasis

6.1 Blood: An Overview

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0072986867/391204/chapt06_lecture.ppt#265,6,Where

do the formed elements come from and what are they? /from the ARIS Powerpoint chapter tutorial

*-There are approximately five (5) liters of blood in the human body.
*-The heart pumps this entire amount with each beat.
*-The functions of blood are in these three categories:

1- Transport-
2-Defense-
3-Regulation-

Blood is primary transport medium in the human body. It carries oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive tract to the tissues. Blood also picks up and transports carbon dioxide and wastes from tissues to exchange surfaces in the lungs and kidneys. It is because of this process that the capillary exchanges keep the composition of tissue fluid within the normal range. Hormones are excreted into the blood and they are then transported to organs and tissues where cellular metabolism is influenced.

Blood defends the body against invasion by pathogens.

Some blood cells destroy pathogens and others secrete antibodies into the blood system.
Blood has regulatory functions. Blood assists with regulating body temperature. Salts and plasma proteins keep the liquid content high. Because of this, blood helps maintain its own water-salt balance. Blood contains chemicals known as buffers which help regulate the body ph balance.

Composition of Blood

http://www.anandhan.citycomputer.in/ red blood cells:/same picture as from L. Frolich site and from google search

Blood is a tissue.

Blood is classified as a liquid tissue.

Blood contains both cells and cell tissues, which are known as formed elements.

The cell and cell fragments are suspended in plasma.

Formed elements within blood are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

Formed Elements are made in red bone marrow.

A childs bones almost all contain red bone marrow, however, an adults bones it is much less common.

Red bone marrow contains stem cells.

There is a great scientific interest in stem cells as to what they may represent in the duplication of other types of cells that may be able to fight diseases such as diabetes and Alzheimer, plus many more.

*-Red blood cells are 2-3 times smaller than white blood cells however there are many more of them

Plasma

Plasma carries various substances in the blood and also distributes heat as a by-product of metabolism, most typically, muscle contraction. Plasma is almost 91% water. Salts, and organic molecules make up the remaining 9%.

*Plasma contains nutrients, vitamins, and hormones.
*The salts dissolve in plasma, as part of the buffers that maintain ph balance.
*Organic molecules (glucose and amino acids) are nutrients for cells.
*Urea is a nitrogenous waste product that is excreted through the kidneys.
*Plasma Proteins account for almost all the organic material found in blood.
*Plasma protein is manufactured in the liver- except for one exception.
*Plasma proteins help maintain homeostasis.
*Plasma proteins take up and release hydrogen ions.
*Osmotic pressure prevents excessive loss of plasma from capillaries into tissue fluid.

There are three major types of plasma proteins:

1-albumins-most abundant -they contribute the most to plasma�s osmotic pressure- help transport other organic molecules-
2-globulins- consist of three types, alpha, beta, gamma globulins-alpha and beta help transport other blood substances like hormones and cholesterol-gamma are produced by white blood cells NOT the liver-gamma fight disease
3-fibrinogen- active in formation of blood clots-

6.2 Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen

Red blood cells (bioconcave disks) are small and lack a nucleus when mature.
They are very large in number in the human body.

How Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

*Red blood cells are highly specialized for oxygen transport.
*Red blood cells move singly through capillaries
*Red blood cells are bioconcave
*Instead of a nucleus, they contain many copies of hemoglobin.
*Hemoglobin is a red pigment.
*The �globulin� part of �hemo-globulin� contains four folded polypeptide chains.
*The �heme� part is an iron containing group in center of each polypeptide chain.
*The �heme� accepts O2 in lungs and lets go in the tissues.
*Red blood cells exemplify �structure suits function�- there biconcave shape gives them more surface area for gas diffusion in and out of cell.
*Internal space is used completely for oxygen transport which they do not consume any of.

How Red Blood Cells Help Transport Carbon Dioxide

Blood picks up CO2 in the tissues-

CO2 transport does not involve heme-

CO2 combines with terminal amino groups of globulin molecules.

The bulk of CO2 is transported as bicarbonate ion in the plasma-

Carbonic anhydrase is an enzyme that assists the process.

Red Blood Cells are Produced in Bone Marrow

*The RBC stem cell in bone marrow divide and produce new cells.
*As RBC mature they lose their nucleus and acquire hem globulin.
*RBC live approximately 120 days.
*RBC are destroyed in liver and spleen by white blood cells (macrophages)
*2 million RBC destroyed every second and 2 million RBC must be replace to keep the count in balance.

Blood Doping

The body boosts the number of RBCs when a lack of oxygen is delivered to the cells.
In the kidneys, a hormone is released called, Erythropoietin, which stimulates the stem cells in bone marrow to produce more RBCs.

Blood Doping is a method of increasing the normal supply of RBCs for the purpose of delivering oxygen more efficiently:

This in turn reduces fatigue, and gives a person (an athlete) a competitive edge.

Doping can be accomplished by an athlete injecting themselves, months before the competition, with EPO to increase their number of RBCS. After several weeks four units of blood are removed and centrifuged to concentrate the RBCs. The RBCS are then rein- fused before the competition. Doping is dangerous due to the blood thickening in the body and potentially causing heart attacks and or death in athletes.

Disorders Involving Red Blood Cells

Anemia is the result of insufficient number of RBCs or there is not enough hemoglobin present in the cells.

Symptoms of Anemia- tiredness and a run down feeling-
Iron, vitamins B12 ,Folic Acid enrich production of RBCs.

Hemolysis is the rupturing of RBCs-the rate of RBC destruction increase.

http://www.astrographics.com/ sickle cells microscopically

Sickle Cell Disease is inherited and is identified by sickle shaped RBCs that have a tendency to rupture as they pass through the narrow capillaries.

6.3 White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0072986867/391204/chapt06_lecture.ppt#276,13,Movement of WBC�s out of circulation/ from the ARIS Powerpoint tutoria;

White blood cells have many differences from RBCs.

1- They are larger
2-they have a nucleus
3-they lack hemoglobin
4-they are translucent unless they are stained
5- they are not as numerous as RBCs

*WBCs are derived from stem cells in red bone marrow, where most types mature.
*There are several types of WBCs.
*Production is regulated by a protein called: Colony Stimulating Factor (CSF)
*WBC count can double within hours if necessary.
*WBCs can squeeze through pores in the capillary walls, because of this they are also found in tissue fluid and lymph.
*WBCs fight infection.
*Some WBCs produce �antibodies� and �antigens�.

Types of White Blood Cells

There are two types of WBCs

1-Granular Leukocytes

2-Agranular Leukocytes

�Granular Leukocytes� -includes neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils-

�Neutrophils� are considered first responders inside the body to bacterial infections.
�Eosinophils� have a bilobed nucleus-they have large abundant granules that take up eosin and become red in color. Much is unknown as to their specific function, however, their numbers increase when a parasitic worm infection occurs.
�Basophils� have a U shaped nucleus-they become a dark blue color-they release histamine, which is associated with allergic reactions.

�Agranular Leukocytes�-includes lymphocytes and monocytes: Neither of these have granules- they both have nonlobular nuclei.

�Lymphocytes� are the second most abundant type of WBC. They are responsible for specific immunity to particular pathogens and their toxins.
There are two types of �Lymphocytes�.
1-B cells-* B cell descendants (plasma cells) protect us by producing antibodies, which are proteins that combine with target pathogens and mark them for destruction.
2-T cells-Some T cells (Cytotoxic T cells) directly destroy pathogens.
�Monocytes� these are the largest of the WBCs.

Once they become established in tissues they then differentiate into larger macrophages (but not in the skin) where they become dendrtic cells. �Macrophages� act as a vacuum cleaner and clear out old cells and cellular debris. Macrophages and dendrtic cells stimulate other WBCs to defend the body.

Disorders Involving White Blood Cells

�Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease� is present when the stem cells of WBCs lack an enzyme called adenosine deaminase. Without this enzyme the body is unable to fight any infections. Stem cell research is currently being used to look for a cure.

�Leukemia� is cancer of the WBCs- it is uncontrolled cell growth. The bulk of the new WBCs are immature and abnormal.

�Infectious Mononucleosis� is an Epstein-Barr Virus which is a member of the herpes family. Symptoms are fever, sore throat, and swollen lymph glands. This infection lays dormant in the persons body after the symptoms disappear. Stress can reactivate the physical symptoms. Reactivation means that the virus can be passed on to someone else through their saliva.

6.4 Platelets and Blood Clotting

http://www.britannica.com/ blood -clotting as viewed under a microscope

Platelets come from fragmentation of certain large cells in the red bone marrow. Platelets are involved in the bodies process of clotting. Two plasma proteins 1-prothrombin 2-fibrinogen, which are made in the liver, are also involved in the process of clotting.

The steps of blood clotting are as follows:

1-Blood vessel is punctured
2-Platelets congregate and form a plug
3- Platelets and damaged tissue cells release prothrombin activator, which initiates a cascade of enzymatic reactions.
4- Fibrin threads form and trap red blood cells

Disorders Related to Blood Clotting

When there is an insufficient number of platelets its called, Thrombocytopenia. Symptoms include, bruising, nosebleeds, or bleeding in the mouth, and rash. It is caused by the low production of platelets in bone marrow or increased breakdown of platelets outside bone marrow.
Hemophilia is inherited and is a deficiency in the clotting process. The slightest bump can cause bleeding in the joints. The most frequent cause of death is bleeding into the brain.

6.5 Blood Typing and Transfusions

Blood transfusions are the transfer of one persons blood into the body of another person.
Blood should be �typed� prior to transfusing to prevent �Agglutination, which is the clumping of RBCs. Blood typing involves determining the ABO blood group and also to see if the blood is Rh negative or Rh positive.

ABO Blood Groups

ABO blood typing is based on the presence or absence of two kinds of antigens. Type A and type B antigen presence is dependent on the particular inheritance of the individual.

1-Type �A� blood means- RBCs have type A surface antigens. Plasma has anti-B antibodies.
2-Type �B� blood means- RBCs have type B surface antigens. Plasma has anti- A antibodies.
3-Type �AB� blood means- RBCs Have type A and type B surface antigens. Plasma has neither anti- A nor anti-B antibodies.4-Type �O� blood means- RBCs have neither type A nor type B surface antigens. Plasma has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies.

Blood Compatibility

Blood compatibility is very important during transfusions. Antibodies in plasma must NOT combine with antigens on surface of RBC or else agglutination (binding) occurs! Agglutination would be when:

Type A blood
+
Anti -A anti-bodies
=
Binding (Agglutination)

Type �O� blood is known as the �Universal Donor� because agglutination will NEVER occur with any other type of blood. Because of the possibility of other blood groups besides �ABO� the donors blood and recipients blood must be viewed on a slide microscopically. This procedure is called, �Blood-Type Matching� and it is done before a blood transfusion.

Rh Blood Groups

This is the designation of whether a person has or does not have the �Rh� factor on the RBC.
Normally humans do NOT have antibodies to the Rh factor but instead they make the antibodies when they are exposed to it.

Suppose, Mother Rh- plus Father Rh+ then;

Rh can leak across the placenta into the mother�s blood stream- This then cause the mother to produce anti-Rh antibodies-Then usually in a later pregnancy the anti-Rh antibodies may cross the placenta and destroy this child�s RBCs. This is called �Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn�. Because of RBC destruction, excess hemoglobin breakdown products in the blood can lead to brain damage, mental retardation, and even death. A shot given to Rh- women within 72 hours of giving birth can prevent Hemolytic Disease in future births of these mothers. The key factor is that the shot must be given prior to the manufacture of the Rh antibodies inside the mother.

6.6 Homeostasis

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0072986867/391204/chapt06_lecture.ppt#294,36,How does the heart, blood vessels and blood work with other systems to maintain homeostasis?/from the aris Powerpoint tutorial

Homeostasis is dependent on the work of the cardiovascular system because of the interaction with the human cells.

(1) car-diovascular system must deliver oxygen from the lungs, nutrients from the digestive system to, and takes away metabolic wastes from, the tissue fluid that surrounds cells.
(2) The lymphatic system returns tissue fluids to the blood stream.
(3) The digestive system supplies nutrients
(4)The respiratory system/supplies oxygen/removes carbon dioxide
(5) The NS and endocrine systems help maintain blood pressure
(6) The lymphatic system returns tissue fluid to veins
(7) Skeletal muscles system (contractions) and the respiratory system (breathing) propel blood in the veins (movement).

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Chapter Seven: Lymphatic System and Immunity

http://www.electroresponse.com/images/immunityguy.jpg "immunity guy" Google Search

7.1 Microbes, Pathogens, and You

7.2 The Lymphatic System

7.3 Nonspecific Defenses

7.4 Specific Defense

7.5 Acquired Immunity

7.6 Hypersensitivity Reactions

7.1 Microbes, Pathogens, and You

Microbes are microscopic organisms such as bacteria.
Microbes are found everywhere in the environment.
Microbes are often beneficial to humans.

They are found in our food supply; foods such as yogurt and bread contain microbes.
Without microbes in our environment for the activity of decomposer, we and our biosphere would cease to exist.

Many human infectious diseases are caused by bacteria and viruses.
The human body has three (3) lines of defense against pathogens:

1- Barriers to entry, such as skin and mucous membranes

2- First responders, such as phagocytic WBC

3- Specific defenses kill particular disease causing agent

Bacteria

Bacteria are single celled prokaryotes, which do NOT have a nucleus.

There are three common shapes:

1-Bacillus/rod shaped
2- Coccus/spherical shape
3- Spirillum/curved

www.e-picworld.com/2008/04/bacterias.html staphocopholys bacterial picture from web search

1-Bacteria cell wall contains amino-disaccharide.
2-Some cell walls are surrounded by a thick, gummy consistency “capsule”.
3-The “capsule” material helps bacteria stick to surfaces, such as, teeth.
4-“Motile Bacteria” have long, thin appendages called “Flagellum”.
5-“Flagellum” allow 360^ rotation and allow backward movement of bacteria.
6-“Fimbriae” are stiff fibers that allow bacteria to adhere to host cells, thus being able to enter the body.
7-“Pilus” is an elongated hollow appendage used to transfer DNA from one cell to another.

Bacteria are independent cells.

Bacteria DNA is packed in chromosomes in the center of the cell.Accessory rings of DNA on bacteria are called “plasmids”.

Bacteria reproduce by “binary fission”.

“Binary Fission” occurs when a circular chromosome attaches to plasma membrane and is copied.

The next step is the two chromosomes separate as the cell enlarges.

Newly formed plasma membrane and cell wall separate the cell into two cells.

Bacteria can double their numbers every twelve minutes.

Some well known bacterial diseases;

Strep Throat
Tuberculosis
Botulism
Food Poisoning
Gangrene
Gonorrhea
Syphilis
The growth of bacteria is what causes the disease.
Bacteria release molecules called “toxins” which inhibit cell metabolism.

Viruses

Viruses bridge gap between the living and the non-living.

Viruses are acellular-they are NOT composed of cells.

Viruses are obligate parasites.

Viruses do Not live independently.

Viruses cause disease.

http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/enlarge/malaria-parasites.html Google Search

The invasion has begun. Microscopic magnification shows Plasmodium falciparum—the most virulent of the four malaria parasites that infect humans—destroying red blood cells in the liver. It digests a cell's hemoglobin, multiplies inside to the point of rupturing the cell, and rapidly spreads a new generation of infection.
Photograph by Albert Bonniers Forlag

Some well known viral diseases;

Colds
Flu
Measles
Chicken Pox
Polio
Rabies
AIDS
Genital warts
Genital Herpes

Virus particles are approximately 4x’s smaller than bacterium, which is approximately 100x’s smaller than a eucharistic cell!

Virus have two parts;

1-Outer Capsid/protein units

2- Inner core of nucleic acid

1-Virus carry the genetic information needed to reproduce itself.
2-Viral genetic material does NOT need to be double stranded DNA,nor even DNA.
3-Some viruses have RNA genome: like HIV
4-Some viruses contain enzymes that help reproduction.
5-Viruses are microscopic pirates because they take over metabolic workings of the host cell.
6-Portions of the virus adhere to a receptor in their specific host cell.
7-The viral nucleic acid enters the cell.
8-The virus may have genes for special enzymes needed for reproduction and then exit from the host cell.
9-The nucleic acid then codes for the protein units.
10-A virus relies on the hosts enzymes and ribosome for its reproduction.

Refresher from figure 7.3 pg. 123

*Virus are tiny non-cellular particles

*Bacteria are small independent cells

*Eukaryotic cells are complex and contain nucleus and organelles

Emerging Viruses

Viruses can emerge by transporting from one location to another where it has never been before.
Many viral disease are transported by (vectors) insects.

In molecular biology, a vector is any vehicle used to transfer foreign genetic material into another cell)Diseases spread by insects may be extremely difficult to control.
A disease can emerge when a mutation allows a virus to use new/different insect.
Viruses can emerge due to the immune systems inability to recognize change in the virus.
Viruses that are continually changes/mutating are difficult to control.

Prions

Prions are “Proteinaceous infectious particles that cause group of degenerative diseases of the nervous system.
These diseases used to be considered viral but they are not.
Prions are proteins of unknown function in the brains of healthy individuals.
Prions cause:
Prions are the cause of, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans and scrapie in sheep and Mad Cow Disease in bovine.
It is believed these diseases are caused by the ingestion of brain and nerve tissue from animals that are infected.
Prions are proteins of unknown function in the brains of healthy humans.
Disease occurs when prion protein turn “rogue” (altered shape). Malfunction occurs because of the “wrong shape”.
Prion disease in humans is low.

Science Focus: Avian Flu, A Disease of Birds

The occurrence of disease, such as the Avian Flu, jumping from one species to another is of great concern to the scientific community. Since 1997 there has developed a deadly strain of this flu type which has been showing up in a number of different countries.
The biggest concern is the potential of the “Bird Flu” strain merging with a “Human Flu’ strain and becoming a “Hybrid” strain of large proportion. A hybrid strain could then be passed quickly and easily from person to person because of high population and also because of easy access to world travel. A “Pandemic” (worldwide disease) is then possible if this was to happen.
Since 2005 there has been only one known case of the “human to human” transmission of the Avian flu. Each time this virus jumps from bird to human the risk increases for a hybrid strain to mutate.
Asian countries at this time are trying to contain and end the spread of the virus by destroying the bird populations that have been infected. At this time the infected fowl have been destroyed and helped the spread of the deadly virus to domestic livestock. At this time attention is being focused on prevention of waterfowl contamination, thus eliminating some of the danger of the flu virus crossing to Central and South America, and also the United States.

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The link below is for a magazine story I found in “The National Geographic,” that is written about the topic of viruses and disease infiltrating human beings. It is a great article about Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT) and viruses.
“Evolution Getting Faster Thanks to Germs, Viruses, Study Says”
Written by Brian Handwerk
March 5, 2007
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/03/070305-evolution-germs.html (article link)

7.2The Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system consists of two parts.

1- lymphatic vessels
2- lymphatic organs

The Lymphatic System is closely associated to the Cardiovascular System.
The Lymphatic System has four functions that support homeostasis.

1-Lymphatic capillaries absorb excess tissue fluid and return it to the blood stream.
2- Lymphatic capillaries in small intestines absorb fats (lipoproteins0 and transport to the blood stream.
3-Production, maintenance, and distribution of lymphocytes is controlled by the Lymphatic System.
4- The Lymphatic System helps protect the body from pathogens.

Lymphatic Vessels

These vessels form a one way system of capillaries, vessels, and ducts that take lymph to cardiovascular veins in the shoulders.
The fluid inside lymphatic vessels is called lymph.
Lymph is a colorless liquid but after food is ingested it turns creamy because of lipid content.
The lymphatic system has two ducts.

1- Thoracic Duct
2- Right Lymphatic Duct

Movement of of lymph within lymphatic capillaries is influenced by the skeletal muscle contractions.

Lymphatic Organs

Lymphatic organs have “primary”, which are red bone marrow and thymus gland and also “secondary”, which consist of lymph nodes and spleen.

The Primary Lymphatic Organs

Red Bone Marrow produces all types of blood cells.
Bone marrow produces RBC’s, various types of WBC’s, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes.

B cells mature in the bone marrow.

T cells mature in the thymus.

The thymus gland has two functions:

1- Production of thymic hormones (thymosin) which aids in the maturation of T lymphocytes. Thymosin may aid the immune system in other ways as well.

2- Migration of T lymphocytes from bone marrow through blood stream to thymus where they then mature. If they are reactive they die. If they have potential to fight off pathogens then they leave the thymus.

The thymus is critical to the bodies immune system because without mature T cells, the bodies defensive response to pathogens is poor or completely absent.

Secondary Lymphatic Organs

The spleen is the largest lymphatic organ in the human body. The spleen filters blood.
Lymph Nodes occur along lymphatic vessels and filter lymph.

Lymphatic Nodules are concentrations of lymphatic tissue not surrounded by a capsule. Tonsils are patches of lymphatic tissue located in a ring about the pharynx. Tonsils fill the same function as lymph nodes.

7.3 Nonspecific Defenses

Immunity is the bodies ability to fight off diseases and cancers.
Both of the following are considered “non-specific” because they act indiscriminately against ALL pathogens.

1- Barriers to entry bar the entry of pathogens into the body.
2- Inflammatory Response is a special reaction the body has when it is first invaded by a pathogen. Protective proteins are also involved.

Barriers To Entry

Barriers to entry can be both physical and chemical that are the first line of defense against infection by pathogen.

Skin and Mucous Membrane- effective barrier that prevents infection, also provide a physical barrier to entry. Ciliated cells that line upper respiratory tract sweep mucus up to the throat where it can be swallowed or spit out.

Chemical Barrier- secretions of oil gland of the skin- contain chemicals that weaken or kill certain bacteria on the skin. Perspiration, saliva, and tears contain lysozyme. The acid pH balance inside the stomach inhibits/stops growth of many bacteria.

Resident Bacteria- normal flora, including microbes that are present inside the human mouth, intestines, and other areas provide a significant chemical barrier against pathogens.
Inflammatory Response

The second line of defense in the body

The inflammatory response (such as swollen ankle example) involves 4 signs of distress:

(1) redness

(2) heat

(3) swelling

(4) pain

These occur becuae of changes in the capillaries of damaged area of body.

Neutrophils, cytokines, and macrophages all assist in the inflammatory response defense of the body.

Protective Proteins

The Complement System are blood plasma proteins that assist (complement) immune responses. Some proteins join together to form a membrane attack complex that produce holes in the surface of bacteria and also some viruses.

Interferons are proteins designed to act as warnings to non-infected cells. These “interferons” are produced in virus infected cells.

7.4 Specific Defense

Specific defenses spring into action inside a body after the non-specific defenses have failed against the pathogens.

Antigens are molecules the immune system recognizes as foreign.

Specific defenses respond to antigens.

Specific Defenses depend on B cells or T cells.

B cells and T cells recognize antigens because they have specific antigen receptors.

Specific antigen receptors refers to plasma membrane receptor proteins- specialized shape allows them to combine with particular antigens.

Lymphocyte has one type of receptor.

Receptor and antigen fit perfectly together.

We have a diversity of T and B cells because of all of the millions of antigens we will encounter throughout our life time.

During normal maturation process there are T and B cells designed for any possible antigen.

B Cells and Antibody- Mediated Immunity

*The receptor on a B cell is called a BCR, B cell receptor.
*B cells become plasma cells and memory B cells. Most cloned B cells become plasma cells.
*Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death. (Specific and predictable events that lead up to the end of living cells in the human body).

Defense by B cells is known as anti-body mediated immunity.

Antibodies contain two polypeptide chains and two light chains. There are two variable regions where a specific antigen is capable of binding with an antibody.

T Cells and Cell- Mediated Immunity

*A T cell has unique T cell receptor (TCR) when it leaves the thymus.
*T cells can NOT recognize an antigen without help.
*The antigen must be displayed and have antigen-presenting cell.
The characteristics of T cells are:

*Cells mediated immunity against virus-infected cells and cancer cells
*Produced in bone marrow- mature in thymus
*Antigen must be presented in groove of an HLA molecule
*Cytotoxic T cells destroy nonself antigen- bearing cells
*Helper T cells secrete cytokines that control the immune response

7.5 Acquired Immunity

Active Immunity

Immunity can be brought about either naturally or artificially.
Active immunity occurs after a person has been infected with a pathogen.
Active immunity can be induced through vaccines.
Immunization is exposure to specific pathogens that have been treated so they can no longer cause disease when given through vaccination.

Passive Immunity

Passive immunity occurs when a person is given prepared antibodies or immune cells to combat a disease.
Passive immunity is only temporary because the antibodies are not produced by the individuals own plasma cells.
Gamma Globulin injection is serum that contains antibodies.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced by the same plasma cell. They are beneficial in the detection of infections and treating cancers.
Cytokines are a form of passive immunity that is used in the treatment of AIDS. It is also used to promote the body’s ability to recover from cancer.

7.6 Hypersensitivity Reactions

When the immune system responds in a way that is harmful to the body then this is known as hypersensitivity reaction.

Allergies are hypersensitivities to substances like pollen or certain foods.

These antigens are called allergens.

An immediate allergic response can happen within seconds of exposure.

Anaphylactic Shock is an immediate allergic response due to the allergen entering the person’s blood stream.

A delayed allergic response is initiated by Memory T Cells at the site of allergen contact.

Tissue rejection occurs after a transplant because the person’s immune system recognizes that the transplanted tissue is foreign. The catatonic T cells respond by attacking the cells of the transplanted tissue.

Immunosuppressive drugs can assist the body in accepting transplanted organs. The transplant must be carefully selected and matched to the recipients body.

Disorders of the Immune System

An autoimmune disease is when the catatonic T cells or antibodies mistakenly attack the body’s own cells because they are recognized as foreign antigens.

Myasthenia Gravis- antibodies attach to and interfere with function of neuromuscular

Multiple Sclerosis- T cells attack the myelin sheath of nerve fibers

Systemic Lupus- deposition of excessive antigen-antibody complexes

Rheumatoid Arthritis joints are negatively affected

A compromised immune system prevents protection from antigens. The immune deficiency leaves the human body prey to outside pathogens or antigens.

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WEB LINK COMPENDIUM NOTES

Web Link-The Immune System’s Response to Invading Microbes

Invading microbes are microscopic invaders that cause disease. They are called pathogens.
The immune system responds to these pathogens in an attempt to rid the body of the invading harm
A pathogen enters the body through bacteria or virus.
The body recognizes the pathogen, and the macrophases ingest, process, or display the pathogen on sueface of their cells.
Antigen Presenting Macrophase interacts with T-cells and together they recognize the same antigens.
An alarm is set off by the macrophase during this interconnected process with the Macrophase and the T-cell.
The “Alarm” is called the Interleukin I which stimulates T-helper cell to secrete
Interleukin II.
Interleukin II cells start chain re-action of Cytotoxic T cell and the B cell proliferation.
The next reaction goes either of two ways:
Cytotoxic T cells- recognize toxins on the infected cells of the body, bind to those cells, and produce specific chemicals that kill off the infected cells to rid the body of the pathogen.
B cells recognize pathogens on the infected cells.
The B cells become activated by T-helper cells and are able to differentiate into plasma cells.
The created plasma cells then become “Antibody Producers” to then be sent out and attach to the antigens who then signal the macrophases to attack and then kill off the harmful microbes in the body.
Some of the B cells turn into “Memory Cells” that can last in the body for decades.
It is because of these memory cells that a re-exposure to specific diseases is readily acknowledged and then dealt with by the immune system.
The body has created an immunity against the disease which means the body does not be- come as ill or ill at all from exposure to the disease.

Web Link- Hemoglobin Causes Net Diffusion of Oxygen

Oxygen diffuses into the blood stream.
Oxygen then transports to cells and diffuses into them.
Carbon Dioxide carries out the same process but in reverse.
The diffusion rate is key to how efficient the gas exchange is.
OXYGEN ß -------à Carbon Dioxide
The concentration gradiant determines the rate of diffusion.
The greater difference in gas concentration across a membrane, the more quickly the gas will diffuse.
The diffusion process reduces the gradiant.
With the gases being removed from the blood, hemoglobin can maintain concentration gradients and continuous diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Web Link- Sickle Cell Anemia

Sickle Cell Anemia was first investigated and named in 1910 by Dr. Herrick.
Symptoms/complaints
“Muscular Rheumatism
Malaise
Pain in Back
Vomiting
Dark urine
Bad Cough
Death
Unusual RBC formation was discovered as the main abnormality of the disease.
Sickle Cell Anemia is a disease that affects RBC and hemoglobin that they contain.
It generally runs in families. Hemo S + Hemo C = Abnormal cell
It is a genetic mutation that is inherited by the principle of incomplete dominance.
Mutation affects the hemoglobin molecule. The Sickle Cell is a defective structure in a protein molecule. Sickle Cell Hemoglobin differ from normal hemoglobin by a single amino acid. It results from a specific amino acid substitution in a protein polypeptide.

AIDS/HIV and The Immune System

Human Immunodeficiency Virus -HIV is what it is called when this virus has entered a person's body. AIDS is "Active Symptoms" within the person-it is when signs of the disease are present. The HIV virus attacks and destroys Helper T cells when someone is infected. The immune system is compromised because when there are not enough Helper T cells, then the B cells do not get the signal they need to produce antibodies or Cytotoxic T cells to fight off and destroy the HIV infected cells. Once homeostasis is compromised to the point of serious illness, helper T cells are so low in number they can no longer perform the necessary response needed to fight off infections and other illnesses.

HIV's ability to bind onto the cell can be inhibited with fusion/entry inhibitor drugs. The HIV virus can integrate into DNA and become a part of the cellular genome,. If this takes place in the infected person, it is irreversible.
The virus uses cellular machinery to synthesize viral proteins. Several of these are long amino acid chains which must be cleaved by a specific viral protease before new viral particles can become active. Protease inhibitors block viral maturation at this step.

The virus frequently adapts and changes into a resistent strain which does not respond to current drug treatments. Treatment is very expensive and many countries are not able to agressively treat the virus.

Education and awareness of unsafe behaviors has been and still is the number one weopon of defense against the HIV virus.

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Self Reflection and Evaluation

2008-09-18T21:35:00.004-07:00

I am coming away from unit one with a new, deeper understanding of cells, systems, genetic characteristics, and how life is formed. I thought we covered alot of information in the book, online and the labs we did. I think I know what to expect more so now than I did prior to jumping into Unit One. What a LARGE amount of work!!! I am really proud of myself!I have enjoyed myself and also gained a sense of accomplishment by creating my cell project and also working with the microscope simulator. I enjoyed the Powerpoint presentations ALOT and it gave me a great place to start to open my mind and understand what the material was going to cover in the unit. I learned alot and think I will retain a big portion of it for the future.

Dragon Genetics and Punnett Square Probabilities

2008-09-18T21:35:00.003-07:00

The Dragon simulator showed me how to manipulate the alleles, (genotypes) of two Parent Dragons *which means basically I got to mess around with the DNA gene material that came from the Father and Mother Dragon to combine in some way that would give Baby Leonard Dragon his distinct characteristics. As I manipulated the alleles, I was causing changes to the baby Dragons appearance (phenotype).

The Punnett Square can use "Probability" to give a percentage (%) of chance as to a certain genotype being present in offspring. The Punnett Simulator gave me fruit flies to work with.
With the DNA genetic information/homozygousLL and a heterozygousLI the probability is 50% for either the homo or the hetero all offspring will be long winged from these two geno-pools.
The Punnett Probability comes from a square diagram with all of the possibilities in boxes and accounted for.
It would look like this:LL/LL and LI/LI

Genetic Changes in Our Food Supply

2008-09-18T21:35:00.002-07:00

Ethical Issue/ Topic Unit One:
The ethical question I am reflecting on in my paper is from the article from our web link titled, “Mother’s for Natural Law”. This website looks at examples of genetically altered foods that are dispersed to the public and then consumed on a regular basis. The article claims that the majority of consumers are completely unaware that they are purchasing and consuming genetically altered vegetables, as well as feeding them to their families.

Molecular scientists are able to manipulate cell DNA by changing/altering the enzymes that are used during DNA replication and protein synthesis. Scientists have also been studying certain types of viruses’ (DNA vectors) that can invade the DNA information center and then alter the chemical make-up for future generations of cells within the organism. Scientists are inserting “desirable” DNA molecules into other cells to change the organism’s chemical mapping, so characteristics will develop that are considered better or more practical in some way.

I think these types of genetic alterations need to be studied well before they are used for general practice. Being able to genetically manipulate a tomato to withstand frost and cold weather, thus helping to ensure a long growing season, sounds like a positive thing to do .Common sense says that by manipulating the DNA, the farmer safeguards his crop income and consumers stand a better chance of not seeing a price spike due to shortages in the supply of tomatoes. Suppose though, that the DNA that is altered in the laboratory, actually works against a chemical chain that is within the human/animal organism. What happens once the two are introduced to one another, and the altered DNA in the food chain collides with the living organism’s DNA and the conversion system starts unfolding? What if ,as the body starts the food to energy break down, it is recognized as “toxic” and something goes terribly haywire in the protein folding process?

I believe altering living organisms should be done carefully and also thoughtfully. Ethically and morally, I want to be informed of what I am putting into my body, and just as importantly, I want to know what I am feeding to my family. I want to be informed so I can then make my own choices and decisions about what to do.
Two of the arguments I agree with that speak against genetically altering food are, lack of test studies, and food having less nutritional value. I personally believe that changing anything in the natural order of the world will have a consequence. To me this is simply, “Cause and Effect” in it’s most basic form. I am a firm believer that everything that occurs in our world has to have an outcome; energy in/energy out. It’s that simple! The consequence could be positive or negative. Only time will be able to tell the true story.

The argument of less nutritional value seems to make sense to me and is something I am concerned about for my own family. I think that by harvesting crops prior to ripening naturally, we run the risk of losing out on much of what nature has to give to us nutritionally. Fruits and vegetables that have been genetically altered to sit on store shelves for longer periods of time without rotting, have lost at least the garden fresh, farm grown aroma, that I grew up with in Iowa on my families farm. In reflection, I can’t tell you how long its been since I’ve actually smelled “fresh vegetables” in my local produce department! As for the wonderful tastes I remember as a kid, those are long gone as well. I have often wondered whatever happened to the way “Iowa’ vegetables used to smell and taste going back 30 years or so ago when I was growing up.

In conclusion, although I believe good things can be learned and also gained with genetic studies, I firmly believe we as human beings have a moral and ethical responsibility to take these types of things slowly and act cautiously and highly conscientiously above everything else.

Unit One Lab Project-Build a Cell

2008-09-18T21:35:00.001-07:00

My Lab Project: Part One
Building a basic cell was fun, challenging, and interesting! I actually learned alot about, and semi-memorized, the parts to a human cell by putting the pieces together. below is a picture of the items I used for my cell model:

I used a large serving plate for my cell structure and the biscuit dough was great cytoplasm, as it helped hold all the other pieces in place. On my cell model I include the main components,membrane (yellow icing) cytoplasm (biscuit dough), endoplasmic reticular (rough and smooth) made with (green licorice and gummi nerds),ribosomes (cookie dots), golgi body (green and white folded paper), mitochondrion (rice cakes and gummi worms), nuclear membrane (orange peel), nucleolus (big marble), Lysosome (red gummi bears, nucleus (orange), and vacuole (rolled gummi worms.
*see below for completed basic cell.

The 3-D effect and also the colors made the working pieces make more sense to me.
The workings of a cell:
Inside the nucleus is stored the DNA blue print for an entire human being. The cytoplasm is the jelly like fluid that helps protein and enzyme synthesis and also is necessary for the processes of RNA/mRNA, and tRNA. The mitochondrion is where energy for the cell is created, and the ribosomes are where the amino acids are processed and the proteins are synthesized.The endoplasmic reticulum (2) and the ribosomes are important in the DNA/RNA replication and transcription/translation processes. Cell replication is constantly going on in a living body, the average healthy cell divides in to a new duplicate copy approximately 60-70 times before it dies! Each and every one of us literally has trillions of living cells in our bodies and old ones are constantly dying and new ones are being formed!

Lab Project;Part two

The second part of my lab project was to show that I understand DNA replication and the workings of DNA, RNA, tRNA, mRNA. The processes of Transcription (which takes place within the nucleus) and Translation (which occurs OUTSIDE the nucleus in the cell cytoplsm) are when the DNA/RNA strands are in process of completion and they need the amino acids/proteins to go through synthesis and combining to complete the steps in new cells being formed. My first picture shows DNA Double Helix, which looks like a twisted ladder. The DNA Double Helix replicates into new DNA by keeping one base (parental) and replicating the other one brand new (daughter strand). All of this takes place in the nucleus up until this part of the process.

DNA EXIST IN NUCLEUS-

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OCCURS IN CYTOPLASM-

FIRST mRNA TAKES COPY OF DNA BLUEPRINT TO CYTOPLASM-

NEXT 20+ t RNA MOLECULES BRING ABOUT PROTEIN SYNTHESIS ALSO IN CYTOPLASM-

TRANSCRIPTION-
STRAND OF (mRNA) FORMS THAT IS COMPEMENTARY TO PART OF DNA (INSIDE NUCLEUS)-
THIS DNA “COPY” TRAVELS OUT SIDE NUCLEUS TO RIBOSOMES TO BECOME PROTEIN (SYNTHESIS)-
TRANSCRIPTION BEGINS WITH ENZYME RNA POLYMERASEOPENING DNA HELIX (IN NUCLEUS) THIS IN TURNS CREATES (m RNA) AS EXACT COPY OF DNA BASES ( IT IS PROCESSED AND THEN OUT IN CYTOPLASM IT GOES!)-

TRANSLATION-
PROCESS OF TRANSLATION IS NECESSARY FOR PROTEIN SYNTHESIS-
SEQUENCE OF NUCLIOTIDES IS TRANSLATED INTO SEQUENCE OF AMINO ACIDS (OUTSIDE NUCLEUS, IN CYTOPLASM)-
BASES OF DNA AND (mRNA) MUST “CODE” FOR AMINO ACIDS FOR PROCESS TO WORK!
TRANSCRIPTION BEGINS WITH ENZYME RNA POLYMERASEOPENING DNA HELIX (IN NUCLEUS) THIS IN TURNS CREATES (m RNA) AS EXACT COPY OF DNA BASES ( IT IS PROCESSED AND THEN OUT IN CYTOPLASM IT GOES!)

Working on the second part of "Building A Cell" was difficult for me! Some of the process didn't make sense to me or else it seemed extremely difficult for me to grasp. The time and effort I put into piecing together the nucleus "how it all works" and the transcription/translation "how it all works", I had a much better basic knowledge of what happens at a cellular level in our bodies.

Compendium Review Unit One:Part Two-Genetics/Chapters 18-21

2008-09-16T19:51:00.000-07:00

My Compendium Review is organized by chapter sequence, followed by the sub-topics within the chapters. Information from the Power point presentation is also presented within the topic

range throughout.

Chapter Eighteen, “Patterns of Chromosome Inheritance”

18.1 Chromosomes and the Cell Cycle

Humans have 2 sets of 23 chromosomes (46 total chromosomes)/ twenty-two pairs are autosomes and the remaining pair is called the sex chromosome because it controls gender.
XY chromosomes represent male
XX chromosome represent female
In the Y chromosome the gene SRY is present and this gene causes male testes to develop.
Red blood cells lack a nucleus, however all other cells contain a nucleus and therefore can be studied through their chromosome make-up.

Karyotype-
pairs of chromosomes are numbered- Chromosomes are duplicated and each is composed of two (2) sister chromatids.
Karyotypes tell much information about a cell.
A normal body cell is “Diploid”.
Mitosis- means duplication division
Sister Chromatids- refers to within dividing cells, each chromosome is composed of two identical parts. Process is possible because each chromatid contains a DNA double Helix.
When Daughter Chromosomes separate, the new cells get one of each kind, making a full complement of chromosomes.
Centromere hold chromatids together until a certain phase of Mitosis.
Cell Cycle-The cell cycle is an orderly process that has two parts:
(1) interphase- most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase. During interphase the cell is in routine function, then it gets ready to divide, it grows larger, the number of organelles double, chromatin doubles as DNA synthesis occurs in humans interphase happens for approximately 20 hours, *which accounts for 90% of cell cycle.
DNA synthesis is responsible for interphase having three stages.
Stage one- G1 stage-cell doubles
Stage two- S stage-DNA replication occurs
Stage three-G2 stage-cell synthesizes protein necessary for cell division.
Some cells, such as nerve and muscle cells never complete the interphase cycle, they stay in G1 permanently, which is then referred to as Go.
Embrionic cells on the other hand spend minimal time in the G1 stage and actually complete cell cycle in a few hours.
(2) cell division-Occurs after interphase- consists of two stages: (1) M*(for Mitotic)-type of nuclear division (2) -Cytokinesis- division of the cytoplasm.
Science Focus (pg.380) Obtaining fetal chromosomes can show parents and physicians the cellular/genetic make-up of an unborn child. Syndromes, such as, Downs Syndrome, can be discovered by performing Amniocentesis. A long needle is used to withdraw amniotic fluid from the uterus. The fluid contains fetal cells and will show if the fetus chromosomes are normal or if there are three number 21 chromosomes instead of two as there should be.
18.2 Mitosis
Mitosis is “duplication division”. The cell that divides is called the “Parent Cell” and the new cells are called “Daughter Cells”. The nuclei of the two cells have the exact same number and kinds of chromosomes as the dividing cell.
The complete number of chromosomes is called the “diploid”.
During Mitosis duplication of the Centrosome occurs. Chromosomes are attached to the spindle fibers and an aster is also at the poles. Spindle fibers can lengthen and shorten due to their physical make-up. This ability to change in length ultimately causes the movement of the chromosomes.

There are four phases of Mitosis. These stages flow from one to the next phase in a continuous manner. The four phases are as follows:
(1) Prophase-during this stage the cell is preparing to divide. The coatrooms outside the nucleus have duplicated, and begin moving away from one another toward opposite ends of the nucleus. Spindle fibers appear between the separating chromosomes- nuclear envelope begins to fragment-special region of DNA, called the nucleolus, disappears as chromosomes condense. Now the chromosomes become visible. Each chromosome is composed of two “Sister Chromatids”. During Prophase chromosomes randomly placed in the nucleus.
(2) Metaphase-during this phase the nuclear envelope is fragmented and spindle occupies region formerly occupied by the nucleus. The chromosomes are now at the center- fully formed spindle. (3) Anaphase-beginning of this phase, the centromeres uniting the sister chromatids divide. Characteristic of this phase is the diploid number of chromosomes move toward each pole. The number of centromeres indicates number of chromosomes, therefore if there are two centromeres than there will also be two chromosomes.
(4) Telophase-begins when the chromosomes arrive at the poles. The chromosomes become indistinct chromatin once again. The spindle disappears as nuclear envelope components reassemble in each cell. This phase characterized by the presence of two daughter nuclei.
Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm and the organelles. A ‘Cleavage Furrow” passes around the circumference of the cell and to me it resembles a peanut shell body. This cleavage furrow eventually pinches the cell in half and it then becomes enclosed in its own plasma membrane.
18.3 Meiosis
There are two cell divisions during Meiosis;
(1)Meiosis I- Homologous chromosomes pair then separate- Only during Meiosis I is it possible to observe chromosomes at equator.
(2)Meiosis II- Sister chromatids separate, results in four cells with haploid number of chromosomes that move into Daughter nuclei.
Results in genetic recombination due to crossing over.
Overview of Meiosis
In the beginning, parent cell is 2n, chromosomes occur in pairs.*(Think of it as a pair of short chromosomes and a pair of long chromosomes.) The members in each pair are called “homologous chromosomes”. These chromosomes carry genes for the SAME traits because they look alike, such as hair color and eye color.
In humans the Daughter cells mature into gametes (sex cells, egg and sperm). Fertilization restores diploid number of chromosomes in the zygote, *which is the first cell of new individual.
The four stages of Meiosis I and Meiosis II are similar but designated with a I or II.
Stages of Meiosis
Meiosis is part of sexual reproduction, which ensures next generation will have diploid number of chromosomes and combined characteristics different from either parent.
(1) Prophase I- synapsis occurs then spindle appears, while nuclear envelope fragments and nucleolus disappears, exchange of genetic material may occur, *called crossing-over.
(2) Metaphase I- Homologous pairs align independently at equator. Maternal or paternal member may be oriented toward either pole. *There are eight (8) possible orientations for a cell that contains three pairs (6 total) chromosomes…the first four combinations result in gametes that have DIFFERENT characteristics and the next four combinations will result in the same gametes. The significance of Meiosis is that it keeps the chromosome number constant from one generation to the next.
“Asexual Reproduction” which occurs in bacteria and protozoans (unicellular organisms) is done by binary fusion.
18.4 Comparisons of Meiosis and Mitosis
Prophase I homologous chromosomes pair/there is NO pairing in Mitosis.
Metaphase I homologous duplicated chromosomes align at the equator.
Anaphase I homologous chromosomes separate.
Meiosis only occurs at certain times in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms. Spermatogenesis (part of Meiosis) is production of sperm in the males and Oogenesis (part of Meiosis) is production of eggs in females. *Following Meiosis the daughter cells mature to become the gametes.
18.5 Chromosome Inheritance
Individuals normally get 22 pairs of autosomes and two sex chromosomes.
Nondisjunction changes chromosome number in the gametes, causing trisomy or monosomy.
Down Syndrome is an autonomic trisomy (trisomy 21)-three copies of chromosomes 21 because egg had two copies instead of one copy. Older women are much more likely to give birth to Downs Syndrome baby.
Turner Syndrome, (XO) which can only be female, is characterized by individual having only one sex chromosome, an X.
Klinefelter Syndrome, *referred to “47” in reference to number of chromosomes, (XXY) can only occur in males. Common characteristics are speech and language delay.
Changes in Chromosome Structure are another type of chromosomal mutation. Environmental agents like radiation, some organic chemicals, and viruses, can cause chromosomal breakage.
When chromosomes break the two broken ends normally re-unite for same gene sequence, but sometimes at least one chromosome fails to re-join in same pattern as before and the result is chromosomal mutation.
“Changes” in chromosomes can be (1)deletions (2)translocations (3)duplications (4)inversions of chromosome segments.
“Deletion” occurs when a chromosome end breaks off or two simultaneous breaks lead to the loss of an internal segment. Even single deletions can cause abnormalities.
“Duplication” presence of a chromosomal segment more than once in the same chromosome.
“Inversion” is a segment 180 degree turn around, this reversal can then lead to altered gene activity such as deletions and duplications.
“Translocation” movement of chromosome segment from one chromosome to another no homologous chromosome. Downs Syndrome is sometimes caused by chromosome 21 being attached to chromosome 14 in the previous generation and can run in either the mother or father’s family gene pool.
Changes in the human chromosome structure lead to Syndromes that are just recently being studied. “Deletion Syndrome’ 8children have characteristics of pixie-ish looks, poor academic skills, however, excel in music and verbal skills. Skin ages prematurely and cardiovascular problems occur due to the protein elastin being missing in their bodies.”Cri du chat Syndrome” *Deletion syndrome where the end of chromosome 5 is missing. distinctive cry is like a cat, small head and mental retardation.

Chapter Nineteen, “Cancer”
19.1 Cancer Cells
Cancer accounts for more than 100 different diseases, however, there are some common characteristics that all types of cancer have.
Cancer is a cellular disease.

Characteristics of cancer cells distinguish them from normal cells.
Cancer cells lack differentiation: they do not contribute to the bodies functioning.
Cancer cells DO NOT look like differentiated Epithelial (skin) Muscle, Nervous, or Connective tissue cells. Cancer cells look abnormal compared to all other cells.
Cancer cells have an abnormal nuclei. The abnormal nuclei is enlarged and may have an abnormal number of chromosomes.
Chromosomes of cancerous cells are also abnormal. When a healthy cell has damaged DNA then it goes through the process of Apoptosis (programmed cell death). Cancer cells fail to go through this cell death process.
Dividing tissues, such as respiratory and digestive tract lining tissues, are more likely to become cancerous. Because of cell division, the cells have more opportunity to undergo genetic mutation.
Cancer cells have unlimited replicative potential. Normal cells divide 60-70 times and then die but cancer cells can go on and on.
Cancer cells form tumors.
Cancer cells have no need for growth factors, which are signals between healthy cells telling the other to either grow (stimulatory) or to stop growing (inhibitory). Cancer cells continue to divide and reproduce.
Cancer cells gradually become abnormal. The development of cancer, known as Carcinogenesis,

is multi-stage and broken into three phases;

(1) Initiation- single cell undergoes mutation
(2) Promotion- tumor develops
(3) Progression- one cell undergoes mutation that gives it selective advantage- Process is repeated several times, eventually there is a cell that can invade the surrounding tissues.
Cancer cells undergo Angiogenesis and Metastasis
Angiogenesis is the formulation of new blood vessels. To metastasize cancer cells must travel across the basement membrane and invade blood vessels or lymphatic vessels.
Invasive cancer cells are sperm shaped.
Cancer cells produce proteinase enzymes that degrade the membrane and allow them to invade the underlying tissues. Malignancy refers to the presence of cancer cells in nearby lymph nodes. When these cells begin new tumors from the primary tumor then Metastasis has occurred. Once Metastasis has occurred the probability of recovery for the individual is doubtful.
Cancer is genetic- The cell cycle occurs repeatedly because of mutation in two gene types when cancer is present.
(1)Proto-oncogenes/cause acceleration of the cell cycle-code for proteins that promote cell cycle and prevent apoptosis. Growth Factor means signal that activates cell signaling pathway, which results in cell division.
(2) Tumor-suppressor genes/ code for proteins that inhibit the cell cycle and promote apoptosis. When this type of gene mutates their products no longer inhibit the cell cycle. Retinoblastoma protein (RB) turns against the gene.
Oncology is the study of cancer- cancer is prevalent in society- one of three will deal with cancer in their lifetime.
Tumor classification is according to where in the body they originated. Carcinomas are cancers of epithelial tissues (skin cancer, breast, liver, pancreas, intestines, lung, prostrate, and thyroid. Adenocarcinomas are cancers of glandular epithelial cells.
Sarcomas are cancers of the muscles and connective tissue, like bone and fibrous connective tissue.
Leukemias are cancers of blood, Lymphomas are cancers of lymphatic tissue.
Lung cancer is common in the respiratory system. Colon/rectal cancer is common in the digestive system- also in the digestive system cancer family is pancreas, stomach, esophagus.
Cardiovascular system cancers are leukemia, plasma cell tumor. Lymphatic system cancers are either Hodgkin or Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Thyroid cancer most common of the endocrine system. Brain and spinal tumors most common in the central nervous system.
Breast cancer is common and can be in either sex.
19.2 Causes and Prevention of Cancer
Heredity plays a large part in whether a person develops cancer. Genetic Profile refers to a person’s gene pool, which they received from their parents. Gene mutations that are inherited lead to cancer. Exposure to carcinogens in the environment play another large role in whether a person develops cancer or not. Environmental factors, Industrial chemicals, and viruses can be cancer causing.
19.3 Diagnosis of Cancer
The earlier a cancer is detected the better chance of recovery.
There are seven warning cancer signs.
Change in bowel or bladder habits.
A sore that does not heal.
Unusual bleeding or discharge.
Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere.
Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing.
Obvious change in wart or mole.
Nagging cough or hoarseness.
Performing self-exams and then going in for Routine screening tests is one of the best ways to prevent and interrupt cancers.
Tumor marker tests are blood tests for tumor antigens/antibodies. These tests can detect a relapse in the genes after a person has had that type of cancer.
Tumor markers can also be used as an adjunct procedure to detect cancer in the first place.
19.4 Treatment of Cancer
Surgeries, radiation, and chemotherapy are standard treatments for cancers. Surgery to remove cancer is often followed by radiation to ensure there is no longer any live cancer. Ionizing radiation causes chromosomal breakage and cell cycle disruption. Cancer cells, because they are dividing cells, are more susceptible to the radiation than normal cells. There are negative side effects to receiving radiation. Radiation is a localized treatment. Most are temporary: diarrhea, irritated skin, fatigue, and weakness, sometimes hair loss , especially at the treatment site can be permanent.
Chemotherapy captures cancer cells that have already spread throughout the body. Chemotherapy treats the entire body. Chemo works by killing cells by damaging their DNA or interfering with DNA synthesis.
The chemicals used in chemotherapy are:
Alkylating Agents- interfere with the growth of cancer cells by blocking the replication of DNA.
Antimetabolites- block the enzymes needed by cancer cells to live and grow.
Antitumor Antibiotics- antibiotics that interfere with DNA.
Mitotic Inhibitors- inhibit cell division or hinder certain enzymes necessary in the cell reproduction process.
Nitrosoureas- impede enzymes that help repair DNA.
Bone marrow transplants are sometimes done in conjunction with chemotherapy.
Clinical trials are being evaluated on numerous types of therapies:
Immunotherapy- a vaccine called Melacine is currently being used to treat melanoma in studies. Genetically engineered immune genes are being tried and studied. Passive immunotherapy is also possible. P53 gene therapy expression is thought to be needed for 19 hours prior to cell death in cancer cells.

Cancers caused by tobacco products are one of the most preventable types of cancers. Smoking and the use of all tobacco products should be stopped and or never started. Tobacco companies market their products after the young population. Addiction to nicotine and other ingredients that are harmful in tobacco should be avoided at all costs.

Chapter 20, Patterns of Genetic Inheritance”
20.1 Genotype and Phenotype
Genotype refers to the genes of an individual. Alternative forms of a gene having the same position (locus) on a pair of chromosomes and affecting the same trait are called alleles.
Alleles occur in pairs, a person usually has two alleles for a trait. Example: EE= unattached earlobe ee=attached earlobe Ee- unattached earlobe. Alleles occur in the same location in the cell, it’s called the lotus.
Phenotype refers to the description of the characteristic.

20.2 One- and Two- Trait Inheritance
One trait crosses means that the inheritance of only one set of alleles is being considered and in two trait crosses the inheritance of two sets of alleles is being considered. In both scenarios it is necessary to determine the gametes of both individuals who are reproducing.
Forming the Gametes- during the process of gamesomeness the chromosome number is reduced. If this process did not happen each future generation would double in number their cell count. Reduction in chromosome number occurs when the homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis. The gametes carry only one (1) allele for each trait.
One trait crosses-
Step one- need to determine the genotype and then the gametes.
Individuals have two allele for every trait but gamete have one allele for every trait.
Step two- combine all possible sperm with all possible eggs/Punnett square may be helpful to determine ratio.
Monohybrid x monohybrid cross there is a 3:1 ratio expected among offspring.
Expected ratio converted to the chance of a particular genotype/phenotype.3:1= 75% chance of dominant phenotype and 25% chance of recessive phenotype.
Two Trait Crosses-
A cell has two pairs of homologous chromosomes. The homologous and the allele they carry, align independently during meiosis.
Dithered is when the individual is heterozygous in two regards. The 9:3;3:1 phenotypic is always expected for a dithered cross when simple dominance is present.
Two Trait Crosses and Probability-
The rules of probability can be used to predict the results of a dithered cross.
Family Pedigrees for Genetic Disorders-
When a genetic disorder is autosomal dominant, an individual with the alleles AA or Aa will have the disorder.
When a genetic disorder is autosomal recessive, only individuals with the allele aa will have the disorder. “Pedigrees” of genetic make up can determine whether a condition that runs in families is dominant or if it is recessive.
Auotosomal Recessive Disorder-parents are carriers because they appear to be normal but are capable of having a child with a genetic disorder.
Auotsomal Dominant Disorder- The child is unaffected but the parents are affected. When a disorder is dominant an affected child must have at least one affected parent.
Genetic Disorders of Interest- *single gene mutations
Tay-Sachs disease recessive disorder that usually occurs among Jewish people, appears normal till about 4-8 months, progressive deterioration of psychomotor functions, blindness, seizures, and paralysis.
Cystic Fibrosis-autosomal recessive disorder. It is the most common lethal genetic disorder for Caucasians in the United States- mucous forms in lungs and clogging of pancreatic ducts is common.
Phenylketonuria, sickle cell disease, marfan syndrome, and Huntington disease are some of the other more common genetic disorders.

20.3 Beyond Simple Inheritance Patterns-
In some patterns of inheritance the alleles are not just dominant or recessive.
The dominant allele have a quantities effect on the phenotype, and the effects are additive. Continuous variation is the result.
The more genes that are involved, the more continuous the variations and distribution of the phenotypes.
Skin color is an example of a polygenic likely to be controlled by many pairs of alleles.
Multifactorial traits- polygenic trait that is particularly influenced by the environment.
Multifactorial Disorders- it is believed that numerous human disorders controlled by polygenes that are subject to environmental influences. In recent years reports have surfaced that behavioral traits in humans can be associated with particular genes. So far it has not been possible to determine to what degree this report is true.
Incomplete dominance is when the heterozygote is intermediate between the two homozygotes.
Codominance occurs when alleles are equally expressed in a heterozygote. The prognosis in familial hypercholesterolemia parallels the number of LDL cholesterol receptor proteins in the plasma membrane.
Multiple Allele Inheritance- a trait is controlled by multiple alleles the gene exists in several allelic forms.
20.4 Sex-Linked Inheritance
Most sex linked disorders are carried on the X chromosome. Many of the X chromosome genes are not related to the gender of the individual.
22 pairs of human genes are called autosomes and one pair is called the sex chromosomes. Traits that are controlled on the sex chromosomes are ‘sex linked”.
Few known traits are X- linked dominant- if so the affected male passes the trait only to daughters. Recessive alleles on the X chromosome are always expressed in males. Y chromosome lacks an allele for disorder.
X linked Recessive disorders- color blindness, affects approximately 8% of male population- does not interfere with normal life activities. Other disorders: muscular dystrophy, hemophilia.
Pros and Cons for Genetic Profiling; Genetic profiling data and access to the information would be helpful in the prevention of illnesses. If the individual who was genetically linked to a specific disease took precautionary measure in their life prior to the disease onset, would it delay or prevent the disease from occurring? If genetic profiling information was readily available to the public, would the information be used against specific individuals because of genetic weaknesses or predisposition to disease?

Chapter 21, “DNA Biology and Technology”
21.1 DNA and RNA Structure and Function
DNA is genetic material that is mostly found in the chromosomes, located in the cell’s nucleus.
Genetic material must be able to do these three things:
(1) replicate so it can be transmitted to next generation
(2) store information
(3) undergo mutations that provide genetic variability

DNA is a “Double Helix”- composed of two strands that spiral about each other- each of the strands is a polynucleotide because it is composed of a series of nucleotides. A nucleotide is a molecule composed of three (3) sub-units, which are, (1) phosphoric acid (2) pentose sugar (3) nitrogen-containing base.
Study the DNA double Helix:
In one strand of DNA the phosphates (P) and sugar molecules (S) make a “backbone” and that the bases project to one side. Put the two strands together and the DNA resembles a ladder.
The phosphate (P) and sugar (S) backbones make the side supports of a ladder and the “rungs (cross bars) are composed of PAIRED bases.
The bases are held together by hydrogen bonding.
Complementary paired bases means that “A” pairs with “T” by forming two (2) hydrogen bonds, and “G” pairs with “C” by forming three (3) hydrogen bonds, or vice versa.
Bases are very important to DNA function. A purine base has two rings and is always paired with a pyrimidine base, which has one ring.
The two strands of DNA are anti-parallel (run in opposite directions)
DNA Replication- during cell division, each new cell gets an EXACT copy of DNA. Process of copying a DNA helix is called “DNA Replication”.
During replication the double stranded structure of DNA allows each original strand to serve as a template for formation of a complementary new strand.
DNA is called “Semiconservative’ because EACH new Double Helix has one ORIGINAL strand and one new strand. (One original strand is “conserved”) Ther are now two DNA helixes identical to each other and to the originsl molecule.

The step process of replication:
(1) “The two strands that make up parental DNA are hydrogen- bonded together.
(2) An enzyme unwinds and un-zips double stranded DNA. This means that the weak hydrogen bonds between the paired bases break.)
(3) The new complementary DNA nucleotides present in nucleus and fit into place by process of complementary base pairing. The enzyme “DNA polymerase” positions and joins the new strands together.
(4) Replication is completed when an enzyme seals the breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone.”
The end product of this entire process:
Two double helix molecules are identical to each other and to the original molecule.
Very rarely there is a replication error in the sequence of DNA parental strand. When this occurs the cell uses repair enzymes that usually fix the error. When repair does not occur then it is called a Mutation. This ‘mutation” means a permanent change in the sequence of bases that could lead to change in the phenotype and introduce variability. These variability’s make everyone and everything different.
The structure and function of RNA-
RNA is composed of nucleotides containing the sugar ribose.
RNA is single stranded-Remember, DNA is double stranded.
Sometimes the single strand RNA doubles back on itself. Complementary base-pairing still occurs.

DNA-RNA similarities-
Both are nucleic acids
Both are composed of nucleotides
Both have a sugar-phosphate backbone
Both have four different types of base
DNA-RNA differences-
DNA is found in nucleus/RNA found in nucleus and cytoplasm.
DNA is a genetic material/RNA is a helper to DNA
DNA sugar is deoxyribose/RNA sugar is ribose
DNA bases are A,T,C,G/RNA bases are A,U,C,G
DNA is double stranded/RNA is single stranded
DNA is transcribed (to give Mrna)/RNA is translated (to give proteins)
Messenger RNA ( m RNA )is produced in the nucleus where DNA serves as a template for its formation. * carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs.
Transfer RNA (t RNA) is produced in the nucleus and a portion of DNA also serves as a template for its production. * transfers amino acids to the ribosomes where the amino acids are joined, forming a protein.
21.2 Gene Expression
Gene expression requires transcription and translation.
Protein structure is the sequence of its amino acids- the secondary structure can be a helix or pleated sheet- the tertiary structure is the final three-dimensional shape of the protein structure.
During transcription 9step one) segment of DNA serves as template for production of RNA molecule. *m RNA is a class of RNA.
The enzyme RNA polymerase opens up the DNA helix just in front so Complementary base -pairing can occur. Next RNA polymerase joins RNA nucleotides and m RNA molecules result. Then m RNA forms and has sequence of bases complementary to DNA. Wherever there is A,T,G,C present in DNA template then U,A,C,G is incorporated into the m RNA molecule. Now m RNA is a copy of sequence of bases in DNA.
Processing m RNA- after transcription then it must be processed.
Translation occurs in cytoplasm at the ribosomes.
Regulation occurs at four levels.
(1) transcriptional control- degree a gene is transcribed into m RNA determines amount of gene product. (In nucleus)
(2) post-transcriptional control- involves m RNA processing. (In nucleus)
(3) translational control- affects when translation starts and how long it lasts (in cytoplasm)
(4) post-translational control- occurs after protein synthesis (in cytoplasm)
21.3 Genomics
Some medical conditions can be treated with gene therapies.
Gene therapy involves the insertion of genetic material into human cells for treatment of a disorder.
Ex Vivo Gene Therapy- and In Vivo Gene Therapy are two types.
Functional genomic is the study of genes and how they operate/work. Comparison of genomes can tell how species have evolved. Genomes has discovered that all vertebrates are very similar.
Proteomics is the study of the structure, function, and interaction of cellular proteins. Translation of all coding genes results in collection of proteins called the human proteome.
Bioinformatics is the application of computer technologies to the study of genome.
21.4 DNA Technology
Genes can be isolated and cloned. Cloning is the production of genetically identical copies of DNA, cells, or organisms through asexual means.
Gene Cloning produces many identical copies of the same gene.
Recombinant DNA contains DNA from two or more different sources.
1- restriction enzyme used to cleave human DNA and plasmid DNA.
2-DNA enzyme called “DNA ligase” used to seal foreign DNA.
3- bacterial cells take up a recombinant plasmid.
4a-gene cloning occurs as the plasmid replicates on its own.
4b-bacterium is also transformed and can make a product * such as insulin, that it could not make before.
Polymerase chain re-action (PCR) can create copies of a segment of DNA quickly in a test tube.
PCR requires using DNA polymerase.
The DNA amplified by PCR is often analyzed for various purposes.After PCR, then DNA Cn be subjected to DNA fingerprinting.
DNA fingerprinting can be used to find the presence of viral infections, genetic disorders, and cancers. If the DNA matches that of a virus or mutation then the disorder is present.
Bacteria, plants, and animals are genetically engineered to produce biotechnology products. Transgenetic Organisms are those that have had a foreign gene inserted into them.
Biotechnology products are produced , such as, hormones and vaccines.
Transgenetic bacteria is helpful in promotion of plant health, removing sulfur from coal, and mineral extraction.
Transgenic crops resist herbicides and pests. Transgenic Animals can be given Growth Hormone to produce larger offspring, can supply transplant organs, and produce pharmaceuticals.

My Final Thoughts on what I have learned.

DNA and cell replication is a complicated process! The most interesting chapter I found was chapter 19 on cancer. I lost my Mother to cancer, lung, stomach, and liver cancer, 15 years ago. Her diseases were definitely caused, and or influenced by environmental choices and factors. Two years ago , my 13 year old nephew developed osteo sarcoma, and in a matter of 2 1/2 months his leg needed to be amputated as well as he had to have double lung surgery, which removed 71 nodules of cancer. He is currently doing exceptionally well and although the long run prognosis isn't the grandest , he has certainly beat statistics so far!! He is 15 years old, in 10th grade, rides his bike, working toward his permit, and loves to boat and jet ski. It's hard for me to think back at how AGRESSIVE the cancer was in his body. Chapter 19 explained alot I didn't know before so it all makes a little more sense, even though I still despise cancer and what it can do to a person.