1-What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
A- My first aspect of this unit assignments that I am most proud of is my Species Lab. I did a good job and also had fun thinking of and identifying all of the "species" I run into each day. The second aspect I am proud of are my compendiums! NOT the pictures I posted with them (I rushed and did not put much effort into collecting them for this unit), but just the fact that I got the compendiums complete, as I am quite tired of doing them this semester! The third aspect I am proud of is my Fetal Development Lab and write up...I did a good job and learned alot! Once again, what a miracle life truly is as I have learned time and time again this semster in ways I never gave credit to before in my life!!
******I FORGOT THE THING I AM THE MOST PROUD OF MR. FROLICH...DID YOU SEE MY QUIZ GRADES???? I GOT HIGH GRADES THIS TIME AND ALOT LESS TEST ANXIETY!!!!! I ACTUALLY GOT 90% ON MY SECOND QUIZ!!!! WOO-HOO!!
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
A- I am not submitting a blog post for "Who should Reproduce (10 point possible) or am I submitting "Feedback" on the NING network (5 points possible) so I am counting that as one area I could improve. My second area I know I could have done better on unit four was my blog posts (meaning the pictures and the layout...not meaning the actual compendium information and work) for my Compendiums...BUT I am honestly tired of the finickiness of the blog itself at times and in my favor I think I spent ALMOST as long attempting to make it space correctly and not re-arrange itself, as I almost spent writing the actual compendium! It got very frustrating at times for this final unit! :-(
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
A- an A !!!
4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
A- I would spend more time with the web-links to learn outside information and differing opinions.
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
A- During the species lab when I was trying to take a picture of the Arizona Spur- Throat Grass Hopper.
At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
A-When the blog would not respond.
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?
A- When Mr' Frolich stated at the very beginning of this unit that it would be somewhat easier than the previous unit loads!!! Thank you!
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
A-None I can think of.
What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
A- My ability on my tests was quite awesome and esteem boosting! The big thing to me this unit was the fact that I TRULY enjoyed the subject of evolution/development of man and even more the small segment on fossils was right up my alley! I love earth sciences because rocks and minerals are one of my greatest passions so I soaked up all of those parts greedily.
Friday, December 12, 2008
Unit Four:Online Lab/Human Population Demographics
World population 2050 compared to Nambia population 2050
World population 2050 compared to Germany population 2050
1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?
A- My high fertility rate country is Nambia and the fertility rate is 3.20 children.
2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?
A- My low fertility rate country is Germany and the fertility rate is 1.40 children.
3. The initial demographic "shape" of your high fertility rate country should have been a pyramid, with high population in young age groups. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth?
A- This is because when the number is high in the fertility age bracket the population numbers increase in the "young" category because of the increased births. The future is affected in thepopulation statistics when tracking the "young" age bracket into middle age, old age, and death with increased numbers in all areas. The later future numbers for the "fertility rate" may decrease as the demographic area becomes enlarged with the prior population aging and the strain it can put on an area.
4. Your low fertility rate country might have had a more oval-shaped curve with high population in middle age groups. This is especially exaggerated if the fertility rate is below 2.00. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middle-aged people.
A- Low fertility rate in a country will lead to less births which then increases the middle sector, (which is middle age) to become proportionally higher simply because of the lack of new population.
5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle-aged and older people in the population and write ten quick "brain-storm" descriptors for you think it would be like (Prescott, Arizona?). Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.To get full credit for this lab (20 points), you just have to post the two screen shots and answer all the questions.
A-Scenerio with middle to old age population- 1-slower paced 2-politically conservative/ moderate 3- structured 4-predictible 5- lacking diversity in cultural differences 6- regulated 7- cautious8- unflexible 9-financially fixed 10- lacking individuality and the freedom to be controversial. 11- somewhat stagnant or possibly resistant to changing.
A- Scenerio with lots of children in the population- 1- fast paced life style 2- spontaneous 3-risk taking 4- liberal thinking 5- social program oriented 6- "green oriented" for the planet Earth 7- out spoke 8- cultural diversified and open to alternative life style. 9- community expansion minded 10- high achievement oriented 11- self propelled
Monday, December 8, 2008
UnitFour Lab Project: List of Species
Unit 4 Lab Project: List of Species
Me brushing my teeth and removing dental plaque before going to bed
Soy nuts to eat for a healthhy snack
1-(a) Homo sapiens (b) my husband/his name is Tony c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ We have co-evolved for certain, as we are both of the same species. I think homo sapiens will continue to co-exist and co-evolve until the end of life as we know it here on earth.
my husband and I at our wedding on November 6 2004
2-(a) Cervus Canadensis (b) elk jerky c) symbiotic or mutualism (d) domesticated/ The reason I said both symbiotic and mutualism is because it seems that humans have the advantage over the elk, especially with the lowered population numbers of the elk in the wild. Humans hunt elk and also elk are used as livestock for human consumption. I think co-evolution will continue, however, the elk species will become more dependent for their survival on humans as time goes on . 3- (a) Geococcyx Californianus (b) Road Runner c) symbiotic or mutualism
(d) unsure whether this is domesticated. The reason I question whether it is wild or domesticated is because the road runner, although considered wild, has adapted to human population, traffic, and less land to survive on. I think humans and this species will continue to co-evolve and that because of the road runners ability to adapt and because of its speed, habits, and nature, it will survive for a very long time.
(d) unsure whether this is domesticated. The reason I question whether it is wild or domesticated is because the road runner, although considered wild, has adapted to human population, traffic, and less land to survive on. I think humans and this species will continue to co-evolve and that because of the road runners ability to adapt and because of its speed, habits, and nature, it will survive for a very long time.
4- (a) Felis Catus or Felis Silvestriscatus (b) house cat/our cat, her name is Wickett Renae Tootle c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think humans have been evolving with cats for thousands of years. I think over time cats have become more ‘domesticated” but I think that cats could also go back to complete predatory/hunters and survive very well without humans.
Me and our cat Wickett Renae Tootle
5- (a) Salvia Greatae (b) Lavender Sage c) symbiotic/mutualistic (d) domesticated/ I think over time this type of plant has become domesticated in some strains (varieties) Humans have genetically adapted this plant in some ways to enhance some things possibly, such as fragrance or color, or watering needs. I think this plant and humans will continue to co-evolve and that they have a mutually beneficial relat
lavendar sage I have planted in back yard
6- (a) Rhizopus Nigerians (b) Bread mold c) Parasitic or mutualism (d) domesticated in a laboratory for medicinal use and Not domesticated (predation) when growing on bread and making it inedible./I think humans have been co-evolving with molds for a long time and that possibly by accident a medicinal use (antibiotics) was discovered. I think that mold and humans will continue to co-evolve together and that this may even be a symbiotic relationship as opposed to a parasitic one.
7- (a) Bostaurus (b) heavy whipping cream from a dairy cow c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think humans have been co-evolving with cows/cattle for quite awhile now and that because cows can be such a source of food (both from meat and also the milk products they produce) and clothing, and possible even parts of shelter, tools, other resources, they have been quite valued. I see some problems with the “over-domestication” of these animals in some ways. Things such as Mad Cow Disease and other illnesses may be caused by the over taking of this species by man for their needs.
8- (a) Nepeta Cataria (b) Catnip c) symbiotic (d) domesticated for some strains (varieties)/ I imagine that some varieties have been altered in some ways for agricultural purposes. I think that this plant along with many others would be able to adapt back to the wild varieties fairly quickly if man no longer was here to manipulate the species.
9- (a) Melanoplus Arizonae Scudder, S.H. 1878 (b) Arizona Spur- Throat Grass Hopper
c) Predation? Mutualism? (d) undomesticated/ I think that the grass hopper definitely benefits off human population because the grass hopper is well fed, due to ample food and also water, because man needs agriculture goods and this is what these insects live off of. I think they have co-evolved with humans and possibly even prospered due to the increase human population. I also think humans could be deadly to the grass hopper with toxic chemicals and altering the ecosystems and not ensuring biodiversity in certain areas.
c) Predation? Mutualism? (d) undomesticated/ I think that the grass hopper definitely benefits off human population because the grass hopper is well fed, due to ample food and also water, because man needs agriculture goods and this is what these insects live off of. I think they have co-evolved with humans and possibly even prospered due to the increase human population. I also think humans could be deadly to the grass hopper with toxic chemicals and altering the ecosystems and not ensuring biodiversity in certain areas.
A grass hopper in my back yard
10- (a) Actinomyces Viscosus (b) plaque c) parasitic (d) domesticated/ I think humans have been co-evolving with many types of organisms on and in their bodies over a very long period of time. I think that with many of the items that we use on and in our bodies to smell better, to look better, and to clean with, we are actually inviting some parasitic organisms as well as detouring others. I think this relationship will continue between the two species.
Me brushing my teeth and removing dental plaque before going to bed
11- (a) Gallus Domesticus (b) chicken breasts baked c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ Humans and chickens have co-evolved for quite awhile. Humans use chickens in many ways: they are a livestock, used for their eggs, and used for their feathers possibly. I think the relationship will continue because humans meet the chickens needs and they in turn meet human needs. I think that because of some of our domestication practices, we have caused illness and maladaptions to the chicken as a species and this in turn has created some illnesses toward humans.
12- (a) Gallus Domesticus (b) eggs c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ Humans and chickens have co-evolved for quite awhile. Humans use chickens in many ways: they are a livestock, used for their eggs, and used for their feathers possibly. I think the relationship will continue because humans meet the chickens needs and they in turn meet human needs. I think that because of some of our domestication practices, we have caused illness and maladaptions to the chicken as a species and this in turn has created some illnesses toward humans.
A hard boiled egg I am going to eat
13- (a) HBV-Human Hepatitus B Virus (b) Hep B c) parasitic (d) domesticated/ I think humans have evolved with this virus and that because humans live in such close proximity, this viral disease has actually become more common and has thrived in recent history. I think this virus will continue to do well, especially in certain pockets of society, such as IV drug users and unprotected sexual practices and also by people who engage with numerous sexual partners. In the big picture this virus may die out as the human populations dies off that engage in the unsafe practices.
14- (a) Glycinemax (L.) merr. (b) soy nuts c) symbiotic or mutualism (d) domesticated/ I think that soy beans have become quite domesticated with the population growth of humans. I think that certain traits and characteristics are bred into strains of this plant species to make it more usable, practical, and marketable for humans and I also think this will continue.
Soy nuts to eat for a healthhy snack
15- (a) Valeriana sp. (b) Valerian Root Tea c) symbiotic/mutualism (d) domesticated and also some left in the world as wild/ So far I have not used the term “commensal” in regard to community relationships so this may be one of my examples that should fit into this category. I think humans have interacted with herbs for many hundreds and thousands of years as they have found medicinal as well as nutritional uses for these type of plants. I believe that humans will continue to co-evolve with this species and also will continue to adapt it to human needs and desires.
A cup of brewed valerian root tea to help sleep come more easily.
16- (a) Sus Scrofa (b) Pig/ Bacon c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think the livestock pig has become quite domesticated in the past few hundred years. I think humans will continue to make pigs part of the livestock food chain for consumption and that it is a symbiotic relationship that serves both species well. I also think because of genetic adaptations imposed by humans on the livestock, that pigs have been genetically compromised in many ways to go back and live in an undomesticated environment.
Bacon I am going to cook to eat.
17- (a) Mentha Spicato (b) Spearmint c) mutualism or symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think this herb, like many others, has a variety of strains that have become completely domesticated, however, I also think that without human interaction, this herb would be able to return to non-domestication fairly quick.
18- (a) Canis Lupus Familiaris (b) Neighbor’s Dog /Houdini c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think Houdini has become dependent on humans to take care of his almost every need. I believe that our neighbors dog would actually die without human assistance due to certain health issues and also his old age. In the wild world, Houdini would not be able to survive due to Natural Selection.
Houdini is our neighbor's dog who is quite old and also has diabetes and arthritis disease.
19- (a) Cinnamomum Verum (b) Cinnamon c) mutualism or symbiotic (d) some varieties are completely domesticated and others are still probably wild in the world./ I think that cinnamon as a spice has become domesticated by humans over the past couple of thousand years. Humans and this spice, along with many others, have co-evolved and have benefited from each other. I think spices have been a food product as well as a bartering tool and status symbol for humans so they have served multi purposes for people.
20- (a) Cucurbitaceous (b) pumpkin (field?) c) mutualism or symbiotic (d) most varieties are completely domesticated by humans but some strains may still be wild. Humans and this species have co-evolved for hundreds of years and this relationship will continue for a long time I think. Pumpkins can be used as food for their fruit meat as well as nutritional value can be found in their seeds. I think another advantage to the symbiotic relationship is that planting of the seeds is fairly easy and also the seeds would go back to the earth simply by the process of decomposition in the fields as well as with purposeful planting of the crops.
A pumpkin we made into our jack-o-lantern and then roasted the seeds to eat.
16- (a) Sus Scrofa (b) Pig/ Bacon c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think the livestock pig has become quite domesticated in the past few hundred years. I think humans will continue to make pigs part of the livestock food chain for consumption and that it is a symbiotic relationship that serves both species well. I also think because of genetic adaptations imposed by humans on the livestock, that pigs have been genetically compromised in many ways to go back and live in an undomesticated environment.
Bacon I am going to cook to eat.
17- (a) Mentha Spicato (b) Spearmint c) mutualism or symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think this herb, like many others, has a variety of strains that have become completely domesticated, however, I also think that without human interaction, this herb would be able to return to non-domestication fairly quick.
18- (a) Canis Lupus Familiaris (b) Neighbor’s Dog /Houdini c) symbiotic (d) domesticated/ I think Houdini has become dependent on humans to take care of his almost every need. I believe that our neighbors dog would actually die without human assistance due to certain health issues and also his old age. In the wild world, Houdini would not be able to survive due to Natural Selection.
Houdini is our neighbor's dog who is quite old and also has diabetes and arthritis disease.
19- (a) Cinnamomum Verum (b) Cinnamon c) mutualism or symbiotic (d) some varieties are completely domesticated and others are still probably wild in the world./ I think that cinnamon as a spice has become domesticated by humans over the past couple of thousand years. Humans and this spice, along with many others, have co-evolved and have benefited from each other. I think spices have been a food product as well as a bartering tool and status symbol for humans so they have served multi purposes for people.
A pumpkin we made into our jack-o-lantern and then roasted the seeds to eat.
Sunday, November 23, 2008
Unit Four/Online Lab-Embronic and Fetal Development
EMBRONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT ONLINE LAB
(2)--when (hour, week, day or month) during development when it occurs
(4) Hind brain is beginning to develop- 37-42 days (first trimester) The brain is beginning to become defined in the various regions. The hind brain, which is responsible for regulating heart regulation, breathing and muscle movements, begins to develop. The significance of this part of development is the brain and body functions are becoming synchronized to perform functions both voluntarily and involuntarily.
(5) Spontaneous movement begins-51 - 53 days post-ovulation- Tiny muscles and nerves are connected to the brain and the fetus is able to make spontaneous movements. The significance is that this is the first stage where the unborn fetus can move independently.
(6) End of the embryonic period- 56-60 days post-ovulation- The embryo has now reached the stage of development that it is a fetus. The significance is that development of the ears, eyes, taste buds, teeth, upper palate, intestines, and limbs is well advanced. The “tail” is now gone. The external genitals are still not developed well.
(7) Basic brain structure in place-61-68 days post-ovulation- The brain can rapidly grow from this point on as the brain structure is complete in the fetus. The significance of this stage is that the brain parts are formed now and will continue to grow within the fetus. Another significant event during this same stage is that the facial features of the fetus are distinguishable.
(8) Sexual organs are clearly visible- 14 week post-ovulation- At this stage the fetus’ sex organs, whether male or female, can be easily seen. Toenails are also starting to grow from the nail beds during this stage.
(9) Finger and toe prints swirls are formed-16 week post-ovulation- The significance of this stage is that the set of prints that makes this individual different than every other individual ever born are starting to be formed on each finger/thumb pad, as well as on the toe pads.
LIST OF TEN SIGNIFICANT EVENTS DURING EMBRYONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENTFOR EACH EVENT:
(1)--quick description of what the event is
(2)--when (hour, week, day or month) during development when it occurs
(3)--why you think it is significant--image or photo of that event or stage for five of the events
www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html (web link provided for lab)
(1) Oocyte Fertilized/ Conception occurs-1 day post ovulation-
Penetration by one sperm into the oocyte’s tough membrane, within hours fertilization is complete and the zygote is created with the entire set of genetic make-up complete! This is significant because it is the miracle of life. This is how it ALL begins!
Penetration by one sperm into the oocyte’s tough membrane, within hours fertilization is complete and the zygote is created with the entire set of genetic make-up complete! This is significant because it is the miracle of life. This is how it ALL begins!
(2) Heart division into two chambers-6 week old fetus-
The baby’s heart beats twice as fast as an adult heart beat and it is starting to divide into two chambers. This is significant because the heart is starting to develop in ways that will last throughout the human lifetime (two chambers in the heart: the left and right ventricles).
The baby’s heart beats twice as fast as an adult heart beat and it is starting to divide into two chambers. This is significant because the heart is starting to develop in ways that will last throughout the human lifetime (two chambers in the heart: the left and right ventricles).
www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html (web link provided for lab)
(3) Upper limb buds appear- 25-27 days post-ovulation (first trimester)
During this time the face and neck are starting to take shape and also the eye and ear will begin to form. During this stage the beginning cells of the liver also begin which is the first piece of the digestive system that is yet to come. The significance of this stage is that the limb buds are the beginning of the arms/hands/fingers of the human body.
During this time the face and neck are starting to take shape and also the eye and ear will begin to form. During this stage the beginning cells of the liver also begin which is the first piece of the digestive system that is yet to come. The significance of this stage is that the limb buds are the beginning of the arms/hands/fingers of the human body.
(4) Hind brain is beginning to develop- 37-42 days (first trimester) The brain is beginning to become defined in the various regions. The hind brain, which is responsible for regulating heart regulation, breathing and muscle movements, begins to develop. The significance of this part of development is the brain and body functions are becoming synchronized to perform functions both voluntarily and involuntarily.
www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html (web link provided for lab)
(5) Spontaneous movement begins-51 - 53 days post-ovulation- Tiny muscles and nerves are connected to the brain and the fetus is able to make spontaneous movements. The significance is that this is the first stage where the unborn fetus can move independently.
(6) End of the embryonic period- 56-60 days post-ovulation- The embryo has now reached the stage of development that it is a fetus. The significance is that development of the ears, eyes, taste buds, teeth, upper palate, intestines, and limbs is well advanced. The “tail” is now gone. The external genitals are still not developed well.
(7) Basic brain structure in place-61-68 days post-ovulation- The brain can rapidly grow from this point on as the brain structure is complete in the fetus. The significance of this stage is that the brain parts are formed now and will continue to grow within the fetus. Another significant event during this same stage is that the facial features of the fetus are distinguishable.
www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html (web link provided for lab)
(8) Sexual organs are clearly visible- 14 week post-ovulation- At this stage the fetus’ sex organs, whether male or female, can be easily seen. Toenails are also starting to grow from the nail beds during this stage.
(9) Finger and toe prints swirls are formed-16 week post-ovulation- The significance of this stage is that the set of prints that makes this individual different than every other individual ever born are starting to be formed on each finger/thumb pad, as well as on the toe pads.
www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html (web link provided for lab)
(10) Immune system begins to develop-32 weeks post-ovulation- At this stage the fetus’ immune system is beginning to develop its defense against germs, virus, and bacteria. The significance of this stage is that the defenses are already being put into place that will help protect the baby after birth. Another fact I find significant during this stage is that the eyes of the fetus can remain open during times of alertness and they shut during times of sleep.
Sunday, November 16, 2008
Compendium Review Unit Four/Major Topic Two:Human Landscapes/Chapters 22,23,and 24
Chapter 22/Human Evolution
22.1 Origin of Life
22.2 Biological Evolution
22.3 Classification of Humans
22.4 Evolution of Hominids
22.5 Evolution of Humans
22.1 Origins of Life
A fundamental principle of biology states, “All living things are made of cells and that every cell
comes from a preexisting cell.” The question presented then is, “Where and how did the very
first living thing come into existence then?” Possibly the answer is that a slow chemical process
change occurred and produced the first cell -protocell/(chemical evolution)
The Solar System developed approximately 4.6 BYA. The Earth has atmosphere. The
atmosphere we have today is quite different than the first atmosphere due to gases and water.
Also heat played a huge role in the atmosphere from long ago.
Primitive Earth had the following energy sources:
1- Volcanoes
2- Meteorites
3- Radioactive Isotopes
4- Lightening
5- Ultra-violet Radiation
Macromolecules- RNA first hypotheses/ states that only macromolecule RNA was necessary to lead to formation of the very first cells.
Protein First Hypotheses/ suggests that amino acids collected together when exposed to dry heat forming portioned then returned to water to form microspheres, which have many of the same properties as cells.
The Protocell- could metabolize but could not reproduce-fermenter because of no free oxygen-if lipids and microspheres become associated a lipid-protein membrane occurs.
The True Cell- a true cell can reproduce and DNA replicates before cell division occurs. Proteins called, “Enzymatics” perform the replication process.
22.2 Biological Evolution
(1)Prokarytic cells are the first true simple cells of life. A feature of the prokaryotic cell is that they lack a nucleus.
(2)Next came the Eukaryotic Cells which do have a nucleus.
(3)Next came multicellularity along with other kingdoms.
Each of these types have their own evolutionary history starting with the very first cell.
Biological Evolution is the process of a species changing through time.
All living things have a common history of origin.
Adaptation is the species ability to survive and reproduce in its environment.
Adaptation is the explanation why there are so many types of living organisms….a particular species adapts to its unique environment.
Common Descent explains the sameness of a species to its ancestors.
Fossils prove evolution because they are the actual remnants of that particular species.
Fossils are 10,000 years or older- up to billions of years old.
“Traces” are remnants or evidence of past life. Traces can be trails, footprints, burrows, worm casts, or petrified droppings. Pieces of bone, plant impressions, species trapped in tree resins are all examples of fossils. Fossils are commonly found in sedimentary stone.
Sedimentation is the process of particle accumulation that forms layering of the Earth’s crust. A layer of sedimentation is called a strata.
When a species dies, it decomposes or is scavenged, so the remains are typically the hard encasement or bone material, which becomes imbedded in the sedimentary stone layer and is then layered over the top of.
Paleontology is the scientific study and discovery of fossils. The term. “Fossil Record” refers to the history of life recorded by fossils. Species have evolved through time so the fossil remains we find are different than the species is today.
Scientifically we know today that life has evolved from the simple to the complex.
Fossil records show the following progression:
1- unicellular prokaryotes
2- unicellular eukaryotes
3-multicultural eukaryotes
Transitional fossils have the characteristics of two species.
Whales are believed to have terrestrial ancestry. The presence of legs in Ambulocetus species
leads to the hypothesis of terrestrial mammals leading to the whale species.
The origins of mammals is well documented through fossilization of species.
(figure 22.4) page 471- The Archaeopteryx had combo of reptilian/bird characteristics.
Biogeographical Evidence studies the distribution of plants and animals in different places
throughout the world.( It is known as “Common Descent”) It hypothesis’ that specific species of
life took root in certain geographical areas and then spread out- but only were able to spread as
far as continent divisions allowed them to.
Anatomical evidence also supports common descent theory: it shows an explanation of
similarities anatomically and uses reason to support the theory.
Biochemical Evidence shows that all living organisms use the same identical basic biochemical
molecules, including DNA.
Intelligent Design: evolution is a theory based in science and evidence to support the theory.
Religious beliefs do not fit into the evolution theory but instead are based on faith. Faith based
creation is founded on creation started from God.
Natural Selection is a Darwinian theory used to describe a mechanism for adaptation. This
theory claims and has supportive evidence that states, “a species becomes suited to its
environment.”
Critical elements of natural selection are:
Variation- Individuals vary in physical appearance and can pass from generation to generation.
Competition for Limited Resources- Because of limited resources and competition for them
generational numbers remain about the same for particular species.
Adaptation- Advantageous traits are much more likely to be passed down generationally
because these particular traits can capture more of the resources.
Natural selection accounts for great diversity of life. Each and every organism is adapted and
designed for its particular way of life.
22.3 Classifications of Humans
Organisms are classified biologically by their evolutionary relatedness. “Binomial Name” of
organism gives it genus and also its species.
Same Domain refers to only general characteristics in common BUT those in the same “genus”
have A LOT of characteristics in common.
The three domain system used to classify (common ancestors)
(1) Bacteria
(2) Archaea
(3) Eukarya..
This classification shows that Archaea are closer to Eukarya than Bacteria.
DNA data is more commonly used and relied on today for species identification.
With DNA category classification scientists have determined that 2bya the domain Eukarya,
which consisted of a membrane-bound nucleus was the beginning of the category that humans
are in today (species Homo sapiens)
Primates are adapted to an arboreal life, which means living in trees.
Two sub-orders of primates are prosimians (lemurs tarsiers) and the anthropoids (monkeys,
apes, and humans)
Primate limbs are mobile and hand and feet have five digits.
Binocular Vision: snout is short so the eyes can move to the front of the head. Stereoscopic Vision
(depth perception is another characteristic, three different cone cells to differentiate the colors,
greens, blues, and reds.
Large Complex Brains are another characteristic of primaries.
Reduced Reproductive Rate: one birth at a time is normal in primates.
Human skeleton/Chimpanzee skeleton
Human = center spine exit
Ape= rear spine exit
Human= s-shaped spine
Ape= slight curved spine
Human= bowl shaped pelvis
Ape= Longer, narrow pelvis
Human= Inward at knees femur
Ape= Angle out femur
Human= Can hold weight on knees
Ape= Cannot hold much weight on knees
22.4 Evolution of Humanoids
The evolutionary tree shows that all primates originated from one common ancestor.
Humans and apes have been developing for approximately 7 mya.
Lineage is when to lines diverge from a common ancestor.
Bipedal posture is a feature that is hominid: another hominid feature is the face shape and the
brain size. There have been times when two or more hominids existed at the same time: such as
the Australopithecus robustus and the boisel and the Homo habillis.
Homo Erectus fossils are found in Africa, Asia, and Europe (1.9-.3 MYA) First to use fire.
Homosapiens (modern humans) evolved from erectus.
evolution diagram from a google search from the internet
The Multiregional Continuity Hypothesis states that the development of homo sapiens in various
parts of the world was very similar. This theory is disputed by those who believe the “Out of
Africa Hypothesis” which claims that homo sapiens only evolved out of erectus from Africa and
THEN migrated to Europe and Asia.
The out of Africa hypothesis suggests that human beings today are much more characteristically
the same.
Neanderthals (H. neandertalenis) massive brow ridges and their nose, jaw, and teeth protruded.
Thought to have been taken over (supplanted) by homo sapiens. Had large brains, lived in caves,
culturally advanced.
Cro-Magnons- Oldest fossils to be labeled homo-sapiens-
Human Variation consist of what we call today ethnicity. These are believed to have evolved due to adaptations to local environmental conditions.
A modern DNA study finds that modern man has a common ancestry link between all world populations approximately one million years ago. This finding concludes that we as humans are closely related to one another.
Bioethical Focus -page 487
Passing on the culture from one generation to the next generation is called Bio-cultural Evolution
and this type of evolution is not dependent on genetics but to adaptation to one’s environment.
It began with homo habillis who we believe were tool makers; Farming is thought to have begun
about 10,000 years ago by the ancestors of today; Population increases in the society then may
have influenced the necessity of more agriculture to meet the needs of the people. The industrial
revolution began in the 18th century and cultural adaptations were continued to be passed down
to the generations of more recent history: Much of the progress and adaptations are harming
and even causing extinction to many number of species because they can not adapt to the
changes in the environment quickly enough. It is possible that extinction could be the result for
the human species if we do not learn how to and become willing to work within the biosphere
better.
Chapter 23/ Global Ecology and Human Interferences
23.1 The Nature of Ecosystems
23.2 Energy Flow
23.3 Global Biochemical Cycles
23.1 The Nature of Ecosystems
The biosphere is where organisms are found on Earth. The entire biosphere can be considered a giant Ecosystem.
“Abiotic” components of an ecosystem are non-living.
“Biotic” components are living and can be categorized by their food source.
Autotrophs- inorganic nutrients and outside energy source are the only requirements.
Heterotrophs- need organic nutrient source. They are considered “consumers”.
Herbivores are animals that graze.
Csrnivores eat meat.
Omnivores eat both meat and also eat plants.
Detritus feeders- organisms that feed on detritus (decomposing particles of organic matter).
Niche- means the role of an organism.
Energy flow and chemical cycling= Solar energy (sun) produces energy which helps trees and
plant life (producers) grow which feeds the animals (consumers) which then is put back into the system by waste and decomposition which then turns into inorganic nutrient pool which then has full cycled and replenishes the nutrients for the “producers” plants and trees.
23.2 Energy Flow
There are interconnecting paths of energy represented in an ecosystems such as a forest.
Forest has a food web that has trophic relationships (feeding).
Diagrams that show single path of energy flow are known as food chains.
Example: (Grazing Food Chain)= leaves=caterpillars=birds=hawks
Detrital Food Chain=Detritus=earthworms=shrews
Ecological Pyramids
The length of a food chain is determined by the loss of energy between trophic levels.
The flow of energy with large losses between successive trophic levels is depicted as an ecological
pyramid. Energy losses between trophics result in pyramids based on organism numbers.
Biomass is the number of organisms multiplied by the weight of organic matter within one
organism.
23.3 Global Biochemical Cycles
All organisms require both organic and inorganic materials.
Pathway for chemicals to circulate through ecosystems involve living (biotic) and non-living (geological/abiotic) components. These are known as biogeochemical cycles and can consist of gaseous material and sedimentary. A reservoir is an example of a chemical cycling.
The Water Cycle consists of evaporation, vaporized ware rises and falls as precipitation,
Water can also evaporated from plants (transpiration) gravity also eventually returns all fresh water to the sea, run off is water flowing directly into nearby streams, ground water can also be located in between layers of rock called aquifers.
The Carbon Cycle consist of organic matter (living and dead) to make up the reservoirs. Fossil fuels are the 300 mya remains of organic materials such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
CO2 along with other type gasses are being emitted because of human activities. Global warming and the Green house effect are two negative by products of human activity in our biosphere.
The Nitrogen Cycle
Plants cannot make use of nitrogen and nitrogen makes up approximately 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere.
Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of nitrogen into ammonium, which CAN be used by plants. Some cyan bacteria and free-living bacteria assist in this fixation process.
Some of the bacteria that help this process occur live in nodules on legume roots, such as beans, peas, and clover. They accomplish this by making available to host plants the nitrogen so they can produce the proteins and nucleic acids.
Production of nitrates during nitrogen cycle is called nitrification. It can occur by nitrogen gas turning into nitrate, from ammonium, nitrate producing bacteria and also assimilation (the process of plants taking up ammonia and nitrate from soil to use ions to make proteins and nucleic acids.
Denitrification is the process of conversion of nitrate back to nitrogen gas, which enters the atmosphere. Human activity interferes with the transfer rate significantly and poses a negative affect on our biosphere.
The Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus that has been trapped in oceanic sediments move onto land after a geological upheaval.
Slow weathering of rock puts up phosphate ions into the soil. Some of the phosphate material absorbs into the plant life that grows in the soil and then it is introduced into the animal life that ingests the plant life. The material is absorbed into their teeth and bone and takes a very long period of time to decompose back into the Earth. Some of the phosphate runs into the aquatic system. The phosphate that is then found in marine sediments does NOT become available to producers on land again until there is a geological upheaval.
Humans alter the ecosystem of the biosphere by mining, which boosts the supply of phosphates (fertilizers and production of detergents are two of the main culprits in the negative impact cycle)
Chapter 24/ Human Population, Planetary Resources, and Conservation
24.1 Human Population Growth
24.2 Human Use of Resources and Pollution
24.3 Biodiversity
24.4 Working Toward a Sustainable Society
24.1 Human Population Growth
Exponential growth refers to the number of reproducing humans increasing and then reproducing offspring.
Growth rate refers to the comparison of the number of births a year as compared to the number of deaths.
The Carrying Capacity refers to the maximum number of population that an environment can support.
MDC’s means the “More Developed Countries’ and the LDC’s refers to the “Less Developed Countries”.
MDC’s have experienced moderate growth in populations since the 1950’s. The USA has a higher than average population increase due to immigration and the baby boom between 1947 and 1964. There are still a large number of females within the child bearing age brackets.
LDC’s have lower death rates after WWII because of modern medicine. The birth rates in some countries is extremely high (5 offspring) and these two factors contribute greatly to the LDC’s high population numbers.
Replacement Population refers to when a couple reproduce only two off spring and no more.
24.2 Human Use of Resources and Pollution
Non-renewable resources are those that are limited in supply, such as, land, fossil fuels, and minerals.
Renewable resources can naturally be replenished such as, water, solar energy, harvested plants and animals for food.
A side effect of resource consumption is pollution, which is an undesirable alteration of the environment. Beach erosion is in part caused by humans living within close distance of the waters edge.
Desertification is the conversion of semiarid land to desert like conditions. It can be caused by humans allowing over grazing of lands.
Deforestation means the removal of trees. Soil loses its fertility and nutrients because of clearing of the natural foliage and trees.
Biodiversity can be loosed due to deforestation as humans often consume a food source from the deforested area that is now inhabited and the ecosystem that the animal lives within.
Water
Some areas of the USA and other places, exceed the renewable supply of water available and must then build dams or use aquifer systems to meet the needs of the populations in those areas.
Groundwater depletion is causing the settling of soil as it dries out, this is called subsidence. Withdrawal of groundwater can cause sink holes.
Saltwater intrusion is another consequence of aquifers. When the water table becomes low enough what usually was replenished by freshwater is then filled with saltwater. Saltwater intrusion reduces the available supply of freshwater along the coasts.
By 2025 2/3 of the world population may be living in areas that do not have enough fresh water supply to sustain the population. Countries and their governments must plan ahead and develop incentives for the people to work toward better water management and conservation measures.
Food
Food comes from three activities (1) growing crops (2) raising animals (3)fishing in the seas. Modern farming practices have increased the available food supply considerably but have also added some harmful practices as well:
(1) The planting of only a few (limited0 genetic varieties.
(2) Heavy use of fertilizers
(3) Generous irrigation
(4) Excessive fuel consumption
Intercropping is the farming practice of planting two or more different crops.
Soil degradation is occurring world wide. This means that the organic rich top soil is being eroded away.
Genetic Engineering: by altering plant genes genetically we may be causing more harm than good by the creation of super strain plants that actually draw more from the biosphere than they offset by the high yields and the amount of people that can be fed.
Domestic Livestock can add to the drain on resources and in high protein diet areas, such as the USA, much of the agricultural land is used for raising of livestock which uses up many of the non-renewable resources.
Energy
(Non-renewable Sources)
Nuclear power and also fossil fuel are both non-renewable energy sources and they make up approximately 81% of the types of energy we currently use to meet our energy needs.
Fossil fuels include: oil, natural gas, coal- they are derivatives of compressed remains of plants and animals that died thousands of years ago.
A person in an MDC uses in one day the amount of energy that A person in an LDC uses in a years time!
The burning of fossil fuels since 1850 has increase the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere considerably 9from 280 ppm up to 350 ppm) Greenhouse gasses include methane gas, carbon dioxide and other gasses released from the burning of fossil fuels. The Green house effect raises the temperature, which raises the water level because of the glacial melting.
Renewable Energy Sources- * include the following-
Hydropower- use falling water to convert to electricity through hydro-electric plants/ often used with large dams.
Geothermal- steam from energy conversion due to uranium, thorium, radium, and plutonium going through radioactive decay in the Earth.
Wind- wind power is believed to be used a lot more in the near future as an energy source/does not require as much land as some alternatives so this may be a better energy supplier.
Solar- Diffuse energy that must be collected, converted, and stored. Passive solar energy refers to such things as when a houses’ window faces the sun and the sunlight/energy enter the home and is stored .
Minerals are non-renewable raw materials that can be mined. These include fossil fuels, non-metallic raw materials (sand, gravel, phosphate). Many heavy metals are harmful to humans: such as, lead, mercury, arsenic, copper.
Surface mining of the Earth’s crust is one of the most negative types of activities that humans perform on the planet. The land becomes void of normal vegetation and also the rain run off then takes toxic waste into the streams and rivers and next the water supply.
Hazardous wastes refers to the build up of minerals which then leads to toxic/harmful levels being present to affect animals and humans in a variety of ways.
24.3 Biodiversity
“Variety of life on the planet Earth”
The loss of biodiversity is something that we face everyday. This includes habitat loss, alien species, pollution, over-exploitation, disease; which all lead to decline in natural species of specific area.
For a healthy balance in a particular ecosystem biodiversity is very important. This refers to the various species in an ecosystem all filling a particular function and niche in the system.
Medicines are an important by-product of biodiversity. Most of our drugs originated in living organisms.
Agriculture is highly affected by biodiversity and when certain crops fail for specific reasons more crops can be drawn from in the natural world of crops because there is a balance and diversity to the various kinds.
Bioethical Focus page 528
Discusses the intricate ecosystems in the coral reefs, which are often thought of as “underwater rain forests”. The ethical issue brought up in the article is the use of cyanide to catch the marine life found within the reefs. The ethical issue raised is the harmful effects of the cyanide to the ocean fish life, the actual changes in the reef and also to the humans who use the poison to catch the fish. Cyanide changes the entire environment and due to electron changes in the mitochondrial electrical impulse system, the entire eco system is damaged and altered for possibly thousands of years.
Biodiversity is a highly important resource. It is not just important for an individual species but when looking at the big picture it is even more important for the survival and adaptation of the entire ecosystem and even larger than that for the entire biosphere (earth).
Waste disposal is important, as is the availability of fresh water, as is the prevention of soil erosion, and the regulation of the climate helps shade and cool so the use of fans and air-
conditioning can be used less. What this all means is the human race overall must come to the awareness of the entire system working together in the biochemical cycles of nature so we do not run out of non-renewable resources and also we do not create more damage than can be overcome by the natural order of our planet.
24.4 Working Toward a Sustainable Society
In an ideal world we would always be able to provide the same amount of what we need and want as we do today as well as balancing biodiversity .
For a continuation of a sustainable society we must focus on not depleting our resources and also make efforts toward resource preservation. The LDC’s of the world create environmental
burdens and at the same time the MDC’s do the exact same thing.
Focusing on a natural ecosystem will be advantageous to us today as well as those generations of the future. We need to make use of our renewable resources and recycle what we use. Agriculture, business, preservation, pest management, mass transit, and energy efficiency are all ways we can address and help our environment.
Focusing on a natural ecosystem will be advantageous to us today as well as those generations of the future. We need to make use of our renewable resources and recycle what we use. Agriculture, business, preservation, pest management, mass transit, and energy efficiency are all ways we can address and help our environment.
Compendium Review Unit Four/ Major Topic One: Reproduction/ Chapters 16-17
Chapter 16/Reproductive System
16.1 Human Life Cycle
16.2 Male Reproductive 16.3 Female Reproductive System
16.4 Female Hormone Levels
16.5 Control of Reproduction
16.6 Sexually Transmitted Disease
16.1 Human Life Cycle
Male and females have quite different reproductive systems.
Sexual maturity is called puberty, it occurs in females a earlier, usually between ages 11-13 and in males, between 14-16.
Reproductive organs are called genitals.
Males-
Females-
Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis is “duplication division” of the 46 chromosomes within the nucleus.
Mitosis takes place in the life cycle of a human during times of growth and repair.
Meiosis is a type of cell division in humans that is referred to as “reduction division”.
It is very specific in its occurrence, in males it only takes place during the production of sperm and in females during production of eggs.
Meiosis reduces the chromosome count of 46 (diploid) in half to 23 (haploid).
In meiosis there are two cell divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II.
The small flagellated sperm is specialized to carry chromosome to the egg. The egg is specialized in its waiting for sperm to bring chromosomes and also it provides cytoplasm as well as chromosomes.
The zygote ends up with 46 chromosomes because the sperm provides 23 and the egg provides 23.
Meiosis is the reason why the newly formed “zygote” ends up with 46 total chromosomes: 
The primary sex organs in the male are the paired testes (gonads) suspended in sacs of the scrotum
The following are the male reproductive organs:
Testes- produce sperm/sex hormones
Epididymides-ducts for sperm storage and maturation
Vasa deferentia- conduct and store sperm
Seminal vesicles- contributes nutrients and fluid to semen
Prostrate gland- contributes fluid to semen
Urethra- conducts sperm
Bulbourethral glands- contribute mucus- containing fluid to semen
Penis- organ for sexual intercourse
Seminal fluid is made of ingredients that have functions toward reproduction.
Orgasm in Males:
Penis has long shaft with enlarged tip called glans penis, which is covered by foreskin, unless circumcision has taken place. Circumcision is the surgical removal of the foreskin, typically done when the male is still an infant.
During sexual arousal autonomic nerves release nitric oxide,NO. This stimulus leads to CGMP
Erectile dysfunction occurs when the expansion of the penis is not enough to compress the veins.
Contractions expelling seminal fluid are part of male orgasm. Orgasm includes psychological and
The hypothalamus plays a vital role in sexual function because it secretes and regulates hormones.
Testosterone is the main male sexual hormone. It is responsible for normal development,
16.3 Female Reproductive System
The female sexual organs include:
Ovaries-which produce eggs and hormones
Oviducts- which conduct eggs, location of fertilization (uterine or fallopian tubes)
Uterus (womb)- which houses the developing fetus
Cervix- is the opening to the uterus
Vagina- which receives the penis, serves as the birth canal and is the exit for menstrual flow.
Eggs are stored in the ovaries and when an egg is released it travels down the fallopian tube
An egg is usually released once a month, fertilization occurs in the oviduct (fallopian tube) and
External female genitals are called the vulva. Included are two folds of skin called the labia
Orgasms in Females
Sexual stimulation occurs and the labia minora, vaginal wall and clitoris become engorged with
16.4 Female Hormone Levels
Follicles are inside the ovary and each follicle contains an immature egg. Only a small number of the follicles are ever used during the reproductive years of a female because typically only one egg is released every month.
The ovarian cycle is as follows:
1-Primary follicle contains oocyte and produces estrogen
2-Secondary follicle contains secondary oocyte and produces estrogen and some progesterone
3-Graafian develops
4- Ovulation-secondary oocyte released
5-Corpus Luteum makes progesterone and some estrogen
6-Corpus Luteum degenerates
The hypothalamus controls the hormones responsible for sexual function in the female just like in the male.
Estrogen is responsible for secondary sex characteristics.
Estrogen and progesterone affect the uterus and breast development and also milk production.
The pelvic girdle is typically wider in females.
Menopause os when the ovarian cycle ceases in a woman’s life. Menstruation becomes irregular and then ceases.
Twenty-eight cycles of the Uterine Cycle are as follows:
Days 1-5/Low level of estrogen and progesterone
Days 6-13/increase production of estrogen
(Days 1-13) FSH secretion begins/follicle maturation occurs/estrogen secretion is prominent
Day 14/ ovulation usually occurs
(Day 14) LH spike occurs
Days 15-28/increase production of progesterone
(Day 15-28) LH secretion continues/corpus luteum forms/progesterone secretion is prominent.
Fertilization and Pregnancy
If an egg becomes fertilized with a sperm then the endometrium will receive the zygote and it becomes implanted in the lining.
The placenta sustains the developing embryo and later the fetus. It produces HCG/In time the placenta produces progesterone and some estrogen.
Birth control is used to prevent pregnancies.
Abstinence is the best way and simply means to abstain from sex. Some other effective birth
The morning after pill is an emergency contraceptive and consists of four hormones, it blocks the progesterone receptor proteins and causes the bodily loss of the implanted embryo.
Infertility means the failure to achieve pregnancy.
Low sperm count or abnormal sperm can be cause, female obesity can cause.
Artificial Insemination can be used to implant sperm in female to impregnate egg.
In Vitro Fertilization can be used to conceive in laboratory and then implant within the female uterus.
Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer can be used and is more successful than IVF.
Surrogate Mothers, paid women usually to carry the parents sperm and egg.
16.6 Sexually Transmitted Disease
HIV- sexually transmitted disease (STD) AIDS is the last stage of the HIV virus.
38.6 million people are thought to be infected with HIV worldwide and 25 million people have died from AIDS.
HIV compromises the persons immune system and it is typically an opportunistic infection that kills the person, not the actual virus. There is no cure for AIDS but there is an antiretroviral therapy that can stop HIV reproduction.
Genital Warts-caused by HPV- often carriers do not show signs- genital warts are associated with cervical cancer and at this time there is a vaccine for warts which is exciting for the potential help with cervical cancer.
Genital Herpes- caused by the herpes simplex virus-Type I associated with cold sores/ Type II associated with genital herpes. Type II usually occurs during adulthood- Can cause neurological disorders in newborns and even lead to death.
Hepatitis- infects the liver, can lead to liver failure, cancer, and death.
There are 6 virus’ that cause hepatitis (A,B,C,D,E,G)
STD’s Caused by Bacteria
These types of sexually transmitted diseases can be cured with antibiotics.
Chlamydia/ infection of the lower reproductive tract.
Gonorrhea- in men a urethral discharge of thick, greenish-yellow. In men and women it leads to
Syphilis- has three stages, in third stage will cause death. When the bacteria crosses the placenta
17.1 Fertilization
17.2 Pre- Embryonic and Embryonic Development
17.3 Fetal Development
17.4 Pregnancy and Birth
17.5 Development After Birth
17.1 Fertilization
The union of a sperm and an egg is called fertilization. This union forms a zygote.
1- Sperm makes its way through the corona radiata.
2- Acrosomal enzymes digest a portion of zona pellucida.
3- Sperm binds to and fuses with egg plasma membrane.
4- Sperm nucleus enters cytoplasm of egg.
5- Cortical granules release enzymes; zona pellucida becomes fertilization membrane.
6- Sperm and egg pronulclei are enclosed in a nuclear envelope.
17.2 Pre- Embryonic and Embryonic Development
Cleavage- the zygote begins to divide immediately after fertilization. Cell division is miotic and the zygote receives full set of chromosomes and genes.
Growth- Cell division increases in size of daughter cells.
Morphogenesis- Refers to shaping of the embryo and movement along with migration of certain cells.
Differentiation- Refers to specific structure and function of cells, which occurs first in the nervous system.
Extraembryonic Membranes are located outside the embryo. The function of the
(1)Chorion- this is the fetal half of the placenta after development (the placenta is organ that nourishes and carries waste)
(2)Allantois- accumulates urine
(3)Yolk Sac- it is the first site of blood cell formation
(4)Amnion- contains fluids to cushion and protect
280 days is considered “normal gestation period” mathematically it is figured as: 280 days added to the start date of the last menstruation cycle.
Pre-embryonic Development- (first week) sperm enters egg and fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube…..as zygote moves along the oviduct cleavage occurs to produce morula, also the blast cyst forms and lodges into the lining of the uterus.
Embryonic Development-(second week till end of 8th week) the umbilical cord takes shape- gastrulayion begins 
Progesterone and estrogen are produced by the placenta during a pregnancy and these two
Path of fetal blood travels through the umbilical cord. At the placenta there is an exchange of
Science Focus page 362 / Cloning Humans: Can it be Done?
1997 was the first successful cloning experiment and although today we consider cloning of animals to be fairly commonplace, there are still a number of problems associated with it.
There are two types of cloning:
Reproductive Cloning is when the end result is an individual-
Therapeutic Cloning is when the desired outcome is embryonic cells that can then be shaped genetically into various cell types.
Events of Fetal Development (3rd through the 9th month) During the 3rd and the 4th month
The fetus can be recognized as a human being. During this stage of development many changes are taking place with the fetus head development. During this stage it becomes possible to detect the sex of the fetus. The babies heartbeat becomes strong and can be detected with a stethoscope.
During the 5th through the 7th month
Movement can now be felt by the mother.
During the 8th and the 9th month
Baby will be about 20 ½ inches long and weigh about 7 ½ lbs prior to birth. Head is usually pointed toward the cervix to emerge into the world head first through the birth canal. A baby born feet first is calle3d “breech’’.
The sex of a child is actually determined at the moment of fertilization. Males = chromosomes X+Y….Females = X+X
There is no way to differentiate the sex of a fetus externally during the first few weeks of pregnancy. If SRY genes are present in the genetic make up then the script is for male genitals but w/o SRY genes then the code is for female sex organs.
17.4 Pregnancy and Birth
Placental hormones (estrogen and progesterone) are responsible for physical changes of the mother during pregnancy. During pregnancy a woman goes through many physiological changes.
Placental hormones in the mothers body support the growth and well being of the fetus. Some of the changes are: arteries relax, changes in blood pressure, blood volume increases, cardiac output increases, decrease in intestinal tract motility.
The pulmonary values increase and also, bronchial tubes relax, uterus size increases, and blood carbon dioxide levels drop significantly. Compression of the ureters and bladder can cause incontinence. Stretch marks often times occur.
Birth
Braxton Hicks Contractions are “false labor” contractions.
“Parturition” refers to the process of giving birth to offspring
Stage 1 Labor: the cervical canal disappears as the lower part of uterus is pulled upward toward the baby’s head when the uterus is contracting (this phase is called affacement) the baby’s head acts as a wedge- amniotic fluid usually ruptures during this stage-this stage is complete once the cervix dilates completely.
Stage 2 Labor: during this stage of labor the physical desire to push increases greatly as the contractions become stronger and also closer together. The baby travels down the birth canal and once the head emerges then the rest of the body follows more easily- the umbilical cord is cut once the baby starts breathing.
Stage 3 Labor: The placenta is delivered and then the birth cycle is complete.
17.5 Development After Birth
Aging refers to the continuation of development that naturally occurs in the life cycle and can lead to disease and death.
Gerontology is the study of aging.
Hypotheses of Aging
Genetic in Origin: It is believed that aging has a genetic basis/ defective mitochondrial (defective DNA polymere) may accelerate the process of aging.
Whole Body Process: A decline in the hormonal system function causes aging/diabetes type 2 and menopause occur in older adults because cell receptors are ineffective. The immune system does not function as well in older adults as it does in younger ones. Aging may or may not be caused by system failures. Cross linking of proteins that support tissues may increase the organ break down process and promote the aging process. Cross linking may also explain the inability of certain organs, such as the heart, lungs, and blood vessels to operate in latter life the same way that they operate in younger people. Elasticity in tendons and ligaments decreases with aging, which is another by product of cross linking.
Glucose attaching to the protein molecules in a persons body is the first step in cross linking.
Extrinsic Factors: It may come to light someday that the actual signs of aging are caused in large part to years and years in early life of lack of good diet and exercise.
Skin becomes thinner as people age.
The homeostasis system does not adjust to or tolerate heat in the older person.
Cardiovascular disease are leading cause of death in the older adult population.
Blood flow to liver is decreased as is the flow to the kidneys.
Loss of teeth is more due to neglect than to aging. Brain function for learning and retention is slower but still quite functional.
Loss of skeletal muscle is common, as is weight gain.
16.1 Human Life Cycle
16.2 Male Reproductive 16.3 Female Reproductive System
16.4 Female Hormone Levels
16.5 Control of Reproduction
16.6 Sexually Transmitted Disease
16.1 Human Life Cycle
Male and females have quite different reproductive systems.
Sexual maturity is called puberty, it occurs in females a earlier, usually between ages 11-13 and in males, between 14-16.
Reproductive organs are called genitals.
Males-
(1) sperm is produced in testes
(2) sperm are transported in ducts and exit the male through the penis
(3)the penis delivers sperm to a females vagina
(4) testes produce sex hormones for masculization.
Females-
(1) eggs are produced within ovaries
(2)eggs are transported in uterine tubes to the uterus
(3) the vagina receives sperm from the male, transports menstrual flow out of the body, is the birth canal
(4) Fertilized eggs develop in the uterus, breasts produce milk for the newborn after birth.
(5) ovaries produce sex hormones for feminization and pregnancy.
Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis is “duplication division” of the 46 chromosomes within the nucleus.
Mitosis takes place in the life cycle of a human during times of growth and repair.
Meiosis is a type of cell division in humans that is referred to as “reduction division”.
It is very specific in its occurrence, in males it only takes place during the production of sperm and in females during production of eggs.
Meiosis reduces the chromosome count of 46 (diploid) in half to 23 (haploid).
In meiosis there are two cell divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II.
The small flagellated sperm is specialized to carry chromosome to the egg. The egg is specialized in its waiting for sperm to bring chromosomes and also it provides cytoplasm as well as chromosomes.
The zygote ends up with 46 chromosomes because the sperm provides 23 and the egg provides 23.
Meiosis is the reason why the newly formed “zygote” ends up with 46 total chromosomes:
without meiosis, the zygote would end up with 92 chromosomes, 46 from the sperm and 46 from the egg.
16.2 Male Reproductive System
The primary sex organs in the male are the paired testes (gonads) suspended in sacs of the scrotum
The following are the male reproductive organs:
Testes- produce sperm/sex hormones
Epididymides-ducts for sperm storage and maturation
Vasa deferentia- conduct and store sperm
Seminal vesicles- contributes nutrients and fluid to semen
Prostrate gland- contributes fluid to semen
Urethra- conducts sperm
Bulbourethral glands- contribute mucus- containing fluid to semen
Penis- organ for sexual intercourse
Seminal fluid is made of ingredients that have functions toward reproduction.
Orgasm in Males:
Penis has long shaft with enlarged tip called glans penis, which is covered by foreskin, unless circumcision has taken place. Circumcision is the surgical removal of the foreskin, typically done when the male is still an infant.
During sexual arousal autonomic nerves release nitric oxide,NO. This stimulus leads to CGMP
production, next the smooth muscle walls relax, which leads to the erectile tissues to fill with
blood. An erection occurs because the blood vessels that carry blood away are compressed.
Erectile dysfunction occurs when the expansion of the penis is not enough to compress the veins.
Contractions expelling seminal fluid are part of male orgasm. Orgasm includes psychological and
physiological satisfaction. Refractory period is the time after orgasm when the penis returns to
normal size and there is a loss of sexual arousal. As a male ages the refractory period lengthens.
During ejaculation there may be up to 400 million sperm in semen.
The hypothalamus plays a vital role in sexual function because it secretes and regulates hormones.
Testosterone is the main male sexual hormone. It is responsible for normal development,
secondary sexual characteristics and greater muscular development.
16.3 Female Reproductive System
The female sexual organs include:
Ovaries-which produce eggs and hormones
Oviducts- which conduct eggs, location of fertilization (uterine or fallopian tubes)
Uterus (womb)- which houses the developing fetus
Cervix- is the opening to the uterus
Vagina- which receives the penis, serves as the birth canal and is the exit for menstrual flow.
Eggs are stored in the ovaries and when an egg is released it travels down the fallopian tube
toward the uterus. The egg can live approximately 6-24 hours and unless it becomes fertilized
(usually in the fallopian tube) by a sperm, then it does not become implanted in the uterine wall.
Implantation occurs when an egg becomes fertilized and then a zygote is formed.
An egg is usually released once a month, fertilization occurs in the oviduct (fallopian tube) and
development takes place in the uterus.
External female genitals are called the vulva. Included are two folds of skin called the labia
majora, labia minora, mons pubis, and clitoris, which is the female equivalent to the male penis,
as it is the organ of sexual arousal.
Orgasms in Females
Sexual stimulation occurs and the labia minora, vaginal wall and clitoris become engorged with
blood-the vagina expands and elongates, the vagina becomes lubricated. Orgasm occurs at
height of sexual response and the walls of the uterus contract rhythmically. Females require no
refractory (resting time) and can experience multiple orgasms in one sexual encounter.
16.4 Female Hormone Levels
Follicles are inside the ovary and each follicle contains an immature egg. Only a small number of the follicles are ever used during the reproductive years of a female because typically only one egg is released every month.
The ovarian cycle is as follows:
1-Primary follicle contains oocyte and produces estrogen
2-Secondary follicle contains secondary oocyte and produces estrogen and some progesterone
3-Graafian develops
4- Ovulation-secondary oocyte released
5-Corpus Luteum makes progesterone and some estrogen
6-Corpus Luteum degenerates
The hypothalamus controls the hormones responsible for sexual function in the female just like in the male.
Estrogen is responsible for secondary sex characteristics.
Estrogen and progesterone affect the uterus and breast development and also milk production.
The pelvic girdle is typically wider in females.
Menopause os when the ovarian cycle ceases in a woman’s life. Menstruation becomes irregular and then ceases.
Twenty-eight cycles of the Uterine Cycle are as follows:
Days 1-5/Low level of estrogen and progesterone
Days 6-13/increase production of estrogen
(Days 1-13) FSH secretion begins/follicle maturation occurs/estrogen secretion is prominent
Day 14/ ovulation usually occurs
(Day 14) LH spike occurs
Days 15-28/increase production of progesterone
(Day 15-28) LH secretion continues/corpus luteum forms/progesterone secretion is prominent.
Fertilization and Pregnancy
If an egg becomes fertilized with a sperm then the endometrium will receive the zygote and it becomes implanted in the lining.
The placenta sustains the developing embryo and later the fetus. It produces HCG/In time the placenta produces progesterone and some estrogen.
16.5 Control of Reproduction
Birth control is used to prevent pregnancies.
Abstinence is the best way and simply means to abstain from sex. Some other effective birth
control methods are: IUD, hormone skin patch, Depo-Provera, diaphragm, female condom, Male condom, and oral contraception.
The morning after pill is an emergency contraceptive and consists of four hormones, it blocks the progesterone receptor proteins and causes the bodily loss of the implanted embryo.
Infertility means the failure to achieve pregnancy.
Low sperm count or abnormal sperm can be cause, female obesity can cause.
Artificial Insemination can be used to implant sperm in female to impregnate egg.
In Vitro Fertilization can be used to conceive in laboratory and then implant within the female uterus.
Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer can be used and is more successful than IVF.
Surrogate Mothers, paid women usually to carry the parents sperm and egg.
16.6 Sexually Transmitted Disease
HIV- sexually transmitted disease (STD) AIDS is the last stage of the HIV virus.
38.6 million people are thought to be infected with HIV worldwide and 25 million people have died from AIDS.
HIV compromises the persons immune system and it is typically an opportunistic infection that kills the person, not the actual virus. There is no cure for AIDS but there is an antiretroviral therapy that can stop HIV reproduction.
Genital Warts-caused by HPV- often carriers do not show signs- genital warts are associated with cervical cancer and at this time there is a vaccine for warts which is exciting for the potential help with cervical cancer.
Genital Herpes- caused by the herpes simplex virus-Type I associated with cold sores/ Type II associated with genital herpes. Type II usually occurs during adulthood- Can cause neurological disorders in newborns and even lead to death.
Hepatitis- infects the liver, can lead to liver failure, cancer, and death.
There are 6 virus’ that cause hepatitis (A,B,C,D,E,G)
STD’s Caused by Bacteria
These types of sexually transmitted diseases can be cured with antibiotics.
Chlamydia/ infection of the lower reproductive tract.
Gonorrhea- in men a urethral discharge of thick, greenish-yellow. In men and women it leads to
pelvic inflammatory disease, can cause sterility in males.
Syphilis- has three stages, in third stage will cause death. When the bacteria crosses the placenta
it will cause blindness in the newborn.
Health focus on page 339
This article focuses on ways to avoid contracting STD’s. Abstinence is the best way to avoid any
This article focuses on ways to avoid contracting STD’s. Abstinence is the best way to avoid any
STD’s. Multiple sex partners and choosing to have sex with people who have multiple sex
partners is risky. Bisexuals and homosexuals have higher rates of HIV virus in population so
protection and awareness are important. Unprotected sex with IV drug users is risky as is anal
sex.
Chapter 17/ Developing and Aging
17.1 Fertilization
17.2 Pre- Embryonic and Embryonic Development
17.3 Fetal Development
17.4 Pregnancy and Birth
17.5 Development After Birth
17.1 Fertilization
The union of a sperm and an egg is called fertilization. This union forms a zygote.
1- Sperm makes its way through the corona radiata.
2- Acrosomal enzymes digest a portion of zona pellucida.
3- Sperm binds to and fuses with egg plasma membrane.
4- Sperm nucleus enters cytoplasm of egg.
5- Cortical granules release enzymes; zona pellucida becomes fertilization membrane.
6- Sperm and egg pronulclei are enclosed in a nuclear envelope.
17.2 Pre- Embryonic and Embryonic Development
Computer generated imagery of DNA double-helix with methylation. The very beginnings of life-DNA :Genetic Blueprint
Processes of Development
Cleavage- the zygote begins to divide immediately after fertilization. Cell division is miotic and the zygote receives full set of chromosomes and genes.
Growth- Cell division increases in size of daughter cells.
Morphogenesis- Refers to shaping of the embryo and movement along with migration of certain cells.
Differentiation- Refers to specific structure and function of cells, which occurs first in the nervous system.
Extraembryonic Membranes are located outside the embryo. The function of the
Extraembryonic Membranes in human beings is specific to the species because humans develop in the uterus.
(1)Chorion- this is the fetal half of the placenta after development (the placenta is organ that nourishes and carries waste)
(2)Allantois- accumulates urine
(3)Yolk Sac- it is the first site of blood cell formation
(4)Amnion- contains fluids to cushion and protect
280 days is considered “normal gestation period” mathematically it is figured as: 280 days added to the start date of the last menstruation cycle.
Pre-embryonic Development- (first week) sperm enters egg and fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube…..as zygote moves along the oviduct cleavage occurs to produce morula, also the blast cyst forms and lodges into the lining of the uterus.
Embryonic Development-(second week till end of 8th week) the umbilical cord takes shape- gastrulayion begins
17.3 Fetal Development
Progesterone and estrogen are produced by the placenta during a pregnancy and these two
hormones along with negative feedback from the hypothalamus and pituitary no new follicles can
mature- the hormones also prevent any further menstruations during pregnancy.
Path of fetal blood travels through the umbilical cord. At the placenta there is an exchange of
molecules between fetal and maternal blood across the walls of the chorionic villi.
Science Focus page 362 / Cloning Humans: Can it be Done?
1997 was the first successful cloning experiment and although today we consider cloning of animals to be fairly commonplace, there are still a number of problems associated with it.
(1) A large number of the pregnancies are not successful because they do not end in full term live births.
(2) Abnormalities with the clone’s growth are common.
(3) Often spontaneous abortion occurs.
(4) Typical abnormalities occur.
(5) Appearance may look normal however disease and other difficulties soon arise often times.
There are two types of cloning:
Reproductive Cloning is when the end result is an individual-
Therapeutic Cloning is when the desired outcome is embryonic cells that can then be shaped genetically into various cell types.
Events of Fetal Development (3rd through the 9th month) During the 3rd and the 4th month
The fetus can be recognized as a human being. During this stage of development many changes are taking place with the fetus head development. During this stage it becomes possible to detect the sex of the fetus. The babies heartbeat becomes strong and can be detected with a stethoscope.
During the 5th through the 7th month
Movement can now be felt by the mother.
The fetus skin is covered by fine down (like fur).
Eyelids are open.
The baby stands a chance of survival if it is born at this time during the pregnancy.
During the 8th and the 9th month
Baby will be about 20 ½ inches long and weigh about 7 ½ lbs prior to birth. Head is usually pointed toward the cervix to emerge into the world head first through the birth canal. A baby born feet first is calle3d “breech’’.
The sex of a child is actually determined at the moment of fertilization. Males = chromosomes X+Y….Females = X+X
There is no way to differentiate the sex of a fetus externally during the first few weeks of pregnancy. If SRY genes are present in the genetic make up then the script is for male genitals but w/o SRY genes then the code is for female sex organs.
17.4 Pregnancy and Birth
Placental hormones (estrogen and progesterone) are responsible for physical changes of the mother during pregnancy. During pregnancy a woman goes through many physiological changes.
Energy level changes, body weight, nausea, and back pain.
Placental hormones in the mothers body support the growth and well being of the fetus. Some of the changes are: arteries relax, changes in blood pressure, blood volume increases, cardiac output increases, decrease in intestinal tract motility.
The pulmonary values increase and also, bronchial tubes relax, uterus size increases, and blood carbon dioxide levels drop significantly. Compression of the ureters and bladder can cause incontinence. Stretch marks often times occur.
Birth
Braxton Hicks Contractions are “false labor” contractions.
“Parturition” refers to the process of giving birth to offspring
Stage 1 Labor: the cervical canal disappears as the lower part of uterus is pulled upward toward the baby’s head when the uterus is contracting (this phase is called affacement) the baby’s head acts as a wedge- amniotic fluid usually ruptures during this stage-this stage is complete once the cervix dilates completely.
Stage 2 Labor: during this stage of labor the physical desire to push increases greatly as the contractions become stronger and also closer together. The baby travels down the birth canal and once the head emerges then the rest of the body follows more easily- the umbilical cord is cut once the baby starts breathing.
Stage 3 Labor: The placenta is delivered and then the birth cycle is complete.
17.5 Development After Birth
Aging refers to the continuation of development that naturally occurs in the life cycle and can lead to disease and death.
Gerontology is the study of aging.
Hypotheses of Aging
Genetic in Origin: It is believed that aging has a genetic basis/ defective mitochondrial (defective DNA polymere) may accelerate the process of aging.
Whole Body Process: A decline in the hormonal system function causes aging/diabetes type 2 and menopause occur in older adults because cell receptors are ineffective. The immune system does not function as well in older adults as it does in younger ones. Aging may or may not be caused by system failures. Cross linking of proteins that support tissues may increase the organ break down process and promote the aging process. Cross linking may also explain the inability of certain organs, such as the heart, lungs, and blood vessels to operate in latter life the same way that they operate in younger people. Elasticity in tendons and ligaments decreases with aging, which is another by product of cross linking.
Glucose attaching to the protein molecules in a persons body is the first step in cross linking.
Extrinsic Factors: It may come to light someday that the actual signs of aging are caused in large part to years and years in early life of lack of good diet and exercise.
Skin becomes thinner as people age.
The homeostasis system does not adjust to or tolerate heat in the older person.
Cardiovascular disease are leading cause of death in the older adult population.
Blood flow to liver is decreased as is the flow to the kidneys.
Loss of teeth is more due to neglect than to aging. Brain function for learning and retention is slower but still quite functional.
Loss of skeletal muscle is common, as is weight gain.
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