My Compendium Review is organized by chapter sequence, followed by the sub-topics within the chapters. Information from the Power point presentation is also presented within the topic range throughout.
Part One: Cells (Human Organization)
Chapter One, “Exploring Life and Science”
1.1 The Characteristics of Life
All living things have certain, very specific, characteristics that they share. The characteristics of life are as follows:
Need energy for life
Reproduction
Grow and develop
Homeostasis (maintain stability)
Respond to stimulus
Organization levels in the entire system (natural order) from a single atom to a biosphere
Evolutionary history and adaptation to specific way of life
The natural organized order of living things:
Atom-smallest unit, composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons
Molecule-two or more atoms put together
Cell-structural/functional unit of everything that is alive
Tissue-group of cells working together
Organ-tissue working together for common function
Organ system-several organs working together
Organism-an individual
Population-group of common organisms (individuals) in particular area
Community-interacting populations in particular area
Ecosystem-community plus a physical environment
Biosphere-a region (area) of Earth’s crust, waters, and atmosphere that is inhabited with living things
All living things have certain, very specific, characteristics that they share. The characteristics of life are as follows:
Need energy for life
Reproduction
Grow and develop
Homeostasis (maintain stability)
Respond to stimulus
Organization levels in the entire system (natural order) from a single atom to a biosphere
Evolutionary history and adaptation to specific way of life
The natural organized order of living things:
Atom-smallest unit, composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons
Molecule-two or more atoms put together
Cell-structural/functional unit of everything that is alive
Tissue-group of cells working together
Organ-tissue working together for common function
Organ system-several organs working together
Organism-an individual
Population-group of common organisms (individuals) in particular area
Community-interacting populations in particular area
Ecosystem-community plus a physical environment
Biosphere-a region (area) of Earth’s crust, waters, and atmosphere that is inhabited with living things
1.2 Humans Are Related to Other Animals
The evolution of human-beings is organized. Evolution causes living things to make sense. We know this because:
Hierarchically organized
Evolutionary explanation
Humans can be understood at all levels of the hierarchy
Humans have evolved and continue to evolve
Humans are mammals but differ from other mammals in the Eukarya domain due to ; highly developed brains, upright stance, language, and tool usage abilities.
1.3 Science as a Process
The “Scientific Method” is organized and consists of four routine steps.
Observation
Hypothesis
Experiments/observation
Conclusion
Scientific theory:
Most scientific studies are published in Scientific Journals. Scientific journals are highly regarded in the scientific community and considered to be the best resource for this type of information. The journals are very straight forward and usually presented by the person conducting the study. One draw back is that for the general public, the information can sometimes be too technical to truly understand. Scientific information that is found on the internet should be carefully considered, as it can be inaccurate and not well monitored.
1.4 Making Sense of a Scientific Study
Discretion must be used when testimonial data is main information source. The drawback is the study has not been performed on large number of subjects. Caution should be used when considering cause and effect: Remember that just because two factors occur at the same time, it is not necessarily true that one causes the other. When forming opinions on scientific studies, consider all four parts of the ‘Scientific Method”.
1.5 Science and Social Responsibility
Science is part of the bigger social picture, which includes religion and personal values. Science differs because of the methodology involved. Social responsibility comes from careful consideration of the many parts involved. Science and technology are often in conflict because of ethical issues that involve genetic manipulation, such as, cell stem research and cloning.
The evolution of human-beings is organized. Evolution causes living things to make sense. We know this because:
Hierarchically organized
Evolutionary explanation
Humans can be understood at all levels of the hierarchy
Humans have evolved and continue to evolve
Humans are mammals but differ from other mammals in the Eukarya domain due to ; highly developed brains, upright stance, language, and tool usage abilities.
1.3 Science as a Process
The “Scientific Method” is organized and consists of four routine steps.
Observation
Hypothesis
Experiments/observation
Conclusion
Scientific theory:
Most scientific studies are published in Scientific Journals. Scientific journals are highly regarded in the scientific community and considered to be the best resource for this type of information. The journals are very straight forward and usually presented by the person conducting the study. One draw back is that for the general public, the information can sometimes be too technical to truly understand. Scientific information that is found on the internet should be carefully considered, as it can be inaccurate and not well monitored.
1.4 Making Sense of a Scientific Study
Discretion must be used when testimonial data is main information source. The drawback is the study has not been performed on large number of subjects. Caution should be used when considering cause and effect: Remember that just because two factors occur at the same time, it is not necessarily true that one causes the other. When forming opinions on scientific studies, consider all four parts of the ‘Scientific Method”.
1.5 Science and Social Responsibility
Science is part of the bigger social picture, which includes religion and personal values. Science differs because of the methodology involved. Social responsibility comes from careful consideration of the many parts involved. Science and technology are often in conflict because of ethical issues that involve genetic manipulation, such as, cell stem research and cloning.
Chapter Two, “Chemistry of Life”
2.1 From Atoms to Molecules
Everything that takes up space and has mass is made from matter.
Matter can be solid, liquid, or gas.
Elements are a building block found in matter.
There are a total of 92 natural elements and none of these elements can be broken down by chemical means.
Atoms are the smallest unit of an element.
Subatomic parts of the atom are called protons and neutrons, which are located in the atom’s nucleus.
Electrons orbit around the nucleus.
Protons are positive (+) and electrons are negative (-).
The mass of an atom refers to it’s quantity (amount) of matter.
Atomic Number refers to the number of protons in an atom, which then indicates the number of electrons.
A molecule is a chemical unit of bonded atoms. The atoms can be different types or the same.
Ion particles can carry either a negative or a positive charge.
Ionic Bonding refers to the reaction of atoms joining together and achieving a stable outer shell.
Covalent Bonding refers to atoms sharing electrons.
2.2 Water and Living Things
Water accounts for 60-70% of body weight and is the most abundant molecule.
Polarity and Hydrogen Bonding cause water molecules to be cohesive.
Properties of Water:
Liquid at room temperature
Temperature rises and falls slowly
High heat vaporization prevents body over-heating
Less dense when frozen
Molecules are cohesive
Facilitates changes inside and outside of bodies due to polar charged molecules
Acidic Solutions equal a High H + Concentration and Basic Solutions equal a Low H+ Concentration.
pH Scale refers to the acidity and basicity of a solution.
Buffers help keep pH within normal limits to maintain health.
2.1 From Atoms to Molecules
Everything that takes up space and has mass is made from matter.
Matter can be solid, liquid, or gas.
Elements are a building block found in matter.
There are a total of 92 natural elements and none of these elements can be broken down by chemical means.
Atoms are the smallest unit of an element.
Subatomic parts of the atom are called protons and neutrons, which are located in the atom’s nucleus.
Electrons orbit around the nucleus.
Protons are positive (+) and electrons are negative (-).
The mass of an atom refers to it’s quantity (amount) of matter.
Atomic Number refers to the number of protons in an atom, which then indicates the number of electrons.
A molecule is a chemical unit of bonded atoms. The atoms can be different types or the same.
Ion particles can carry either a negative or a positive charge.
Ionic Bonding refers to the reaction of atoms joining together and achieving a stable outer shell.
Covalent Bonding refers to atoms sharing electrons.
2.2 Water and Living Things
Water accounts for 60-70% of body weight and is the most abundant molecule.
Polarity and Hydrogen Bonding cause water molecules to be cohesive.
Properties of Water:
Liquid at room temperature
Temperature rises and falls slowly
High heat vaporization prevents body over-heating
Less dense when frozen
Molecules are cohesive
Facilitates changes inside and outside of bodies due to polar charged molecules
Acidic Solutions equal a High H + Concentration and Basic Solutions equal a Low H+ Concentration.
pH Scale refers to the acidity and basicity of a solution.
Buffers help keep pH within normal limits to maintain health.
2.3 Molecules of Life
There are four (4) molecules that support human life in their cell structure.
Carbohydrates-for energy
Proteins-catalyze chemical reactions
Fats/Lipids-encases cell membranes
DNA/RNA-genetic material information
Carbon atoms can link together endlessly. One molecule can equal millions of carbon atoms.
2.4 Carbohydrates
Made of simple sugars
Used for energy storage in complex form
Broken down to simple sugars to fuel cells
2.5 Fats/Lipids
Separate the cell interior from environment
In mammals/vertebrates helps long term energy storage
Controversy of what role they play in the diet
2.6 Proteins
Made of amino acids
Complex
Amino acid chain folds to give complex form cellular metabolism
Complex form allows catalyzing very specific chemical reaction
2.7 RNA/DNA Nucleic Acids
Store and use information
Components are bases
DNA base can be millions of bases long
DNA replicates to pass on information
Transcribed to RNA to pass on information to cells
There are four (4) molecules that support human life in their cell structure.
Carbohydrates-for energy
Proteins-catalyze chemical reactions
Fats/Lipids-encases cell membranes
DNA/RNA-genetic material information
Carbon atoms can link together endlessly. One molecule can equal millions of carbon atoms.
2.4 Carbohydrates
Made of simple sugars
Used for energy storage in complex form
Broken down to simple sugars to fuel cells
2.5 Fats/Lipids
Separate the cell interior from environment
In mammals/vertebrates helps long term energy storage
Controversy of what role they play in the diet
2.6 Proteins
Made of amino acids
Complex
Amino acid chain folds to give complex form cellular metabolism
Complex form allows catalyzing very specific chemical reaction
2.7 RNA/DNA Nucleic Acids
Store and use information
Components are bases
DNA base can be millions of bases long
DNA replicates to pass on information
Transcribed to RNA to pass on information to cells
Chapter Three, “Cell Structure and Function”
3.1 What is a Cell?
The Cell Theory refers to: “A cell is the basic unit of life. Nothing smaller than a cell is alive.”
There are two types of cells:
Prokaryotic- simple, small, no organelles *bacteria are the best example
Eukaryotic- complex, membrane bound, large, multi-cellular *plants and animals are the best examples
New cells develop from pre-existing cells. Humans are multi-cellular. “Zygote” refers to the first cell of a living organism. A zygote is the union of a male sperm cell and a female egg cell.
3.2 How Cells are Organized
All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane with a central nucleus. The purpose of the plasma membrane is to keep the cell intact. It monitors certain molecules and ions from entering the cytoplasm.
Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus.
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus.
3.3 The Plasma Membrane and How Substances Cross It
Diffusion refers to random movement of molecules to balance out the distribution.
Osmosis refers to the diffusion of water across a plasma membrane.
Tonicity refers to the concentration of the solute in a solution.
Facilitated Transport refers to higher rate of speed for the solute movement within the membrane.
Active Transport refers to movement in a contrary direction.
Endocytosis refers to the process of the plasma membrane forming a pouch. The specialized name is “Phagocytosis”. (into the cell)
Exocytosis refers to the process of secretion during the vesicle fusion with the plasma membrane. (out of the cell)
3.4 The Nucleus and the Production of Proteins
Protein synthesis occurs because of involvement of the: Nucleus, Ribosomes, and Endo membranes.
The nucleus is bound with a porous envelope, which houses DNA and chromatin. It contains nucleoplasm. The nucleus region contains ribosomal (RNA).
The nucleus stores genetic information and is prominent within the cell structure.
Ribosomes are organelles composed of proteins and rRna.
The Endomembrane System
Consists of a series of membranes where molecules are transported in the cell
Consists of a nucleur envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, lysosomes, and vesicles
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum- Synthesizes proteins and packages the in vesicles
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- Synthesizes lipids and has various other functions
Golgi Apparatus- Modifies lipids and proteins from the ER; sorts and packages them in vesicles
Vesicles- Takes lipids then proteins to Golgi Apparatus
Lysosome- Contains digestive enzymes that break down cell parts or substances entering by vesicles
3.1 What is a Cell?
The Cell Theory refers to: “A cell is the basic unit of life. Nothing smaller than a cell is alive.”
There are two types of cells:
Prokaryotic- simple, small, no organelles *bacteria are the best example
Eukaryotic- complex, membrane bound, large, multi-cellular *plants and animals are the best examples
New cells develop from pre-existing cells. Humans are multi-cellular. “Zygote” refers to the first cell of a living organism. A zygote is the union of a male sperm cell and a female egg cell.
3.2 How Cells are Organized
All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane with a central nucleus. The purpose of the plasma membrane is to keep the cell intact. It monitors certain molecules and ions from entering the cytoplasm.
Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus.
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus.
3.3 The Plasma Membrane and How Substances Cross It
Diffusion refers to random movement of molecules to balance out the distribution.
Osmosis refers to the diffusion of water across a plasma membrane.
Tonicity refers to the concentration of the solute in a solution.
Facilitated Transport refers to higher rate of speed for the solute movement within the membrane.
Active Transport refers to movement in a contrary direction.
Endocytosis refers to the process of the plasma membrane forming a pouch. The specialized name is “Phagocytosis”. (into the cell)
Exocytosis refers to the process of secretion during the vesicle fusion with the plasma membrane. (out of the cell)
3.4 The Nucleus and the Production of Proteins
Protein synthesis occurs because of involvement of the: Nucleus, Ribosomes, and Endo membranes.
The nucleus is bound with a porous envelope, which houses DNA and chromatin. It contains nucleoplasm. The nucleus region contains ribosomal (RNA).
The nucleus stores genetic information and is prominent within the cell structure.
Ribosomes are organelles composed of proteins and rRna.
The Endomembrane System
Consists of a series of membranes where molecules are transported in the cell
Consists of a nucleur envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, lysosomes, and vesicles
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum- Synthesizes proteins and packages the in vesicles
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- Synthesizes lipids and has various other functions
Golgi Apparatus- Modifies lipids and proteins from the ER; sorts and packages them in vesicles
Vesicles- Takes lipids then proteins to Golgi Apparatus
Lysosome- Contains digestive enzymes that break down cell parts or substances entering by vesicles
3.5 The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement
Protein fibers that are criss-cross over the cytoplasm of the cell is called the Cytoskeleton.
The Cytoskeleton consists of:
Microtubules
Actin filaments
Intermediate filaments
The above items give cells shape and allow organelle movement within the cell.
Cilia and Flagella (tail on sperm) are both made of microtubules and are both used in movement.
3.6 Mitochondria and Cellular Metabolism
Mitochondria
Produces energy.
Have an inner membrane that forms into cristae, which projects into the matrix
Involved with cellular respiration
Convert energy of glucose (during cellular respiration) into ATP molecule energy
Cellular Respiration is vital part of Metabolism.
Metabolism is considered any and all chemical reaction that occurs within a cell.
Cellular Respiration is the process of producing ATP. It occurs in mitochondria. ATP is produced. Glucose is mainly used, however, proteins, lipids, and other carbohydrates can be used during the process.
ATP is made without oxygen being present. It is called “fermentation” and creates a burst of energy.
Cell metabolism creates energy within the organism for that organism to grow, evolve, reproduce, and for chemical reactions to occur.
We know a cell is alive because of metabolism and chemical reaction.
Reaction in cell metabolism is catalyzed by a protein
Amino Acid sequence for proteins are coded for DNA
Super computers are trying to figure out how amino acid sequence take on certain shapes
Proteins are believed to hold the key to understanding how cell metabolism works
Protein fibers that are criss-cross over the cytoplasm of the cell is called the Cytoskeleton.
The Cytoskeleton consists of:
Microtubules
Actin filaments
Intermediate filaments
The above items give cells shape and allow organelle movement within the cell.
Cilia and Flagella (tail on sperm) are both made of microtubules and are both used in movement.
3.6 Mitochondria and Cellular Metabolism
Mitochondria
Produces energy.
Have an inner membrane that forms into cristae, which projects into the matrix
Involved with cellular respiration
Convert energy of glucose (during cellular respiration) into ATP molecule energy
Cellular Respiration is vital part of Metabolism.
Metabolism is considered any and all chemical reaction that occurs within a cell.
Cellular Respiration is the process of producing ATP. It occurs in mitochondria. ATP is produced. Glucose is mainly used, however, proteins, lipids, and other carbohydrates can be used during the process.
ATP is made without oxygen being present. It is called “fermentation” and creates a burst of energy.
Cell metabolism creates energy within the organism for that organism to grow, evolve, reproduce, and for chemical reactions to occur.
We know a cell is alive because of metabolism and chemical reaction.
Reaction in cell metabolism is catalyzed by a protein
Amino Acid sequence for proteins are coded for DNA
Super computers are trying to figure out how amino acid sequence take on certain shapes
Proteins are believed to hold the key to understanding how cell metabolism works
Chapter Four, “Organization and Regulation of Body Systems’
4.1 Types of Tissue
Tissue is composed of specialized cells of like kind that perform certain function.
There are four categories of tissues (called multi-cellular organisms):
Connective Tissue- binds and supports body parts *such as bones *fibrous, supportive, and fluid
Muscular Tissue- moves the body and it’s parts *skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
Nervous Tissue- receives stimuli and conducts nerve impulses *communicates between cells
Epithelial Tissue- covers body surfaces and lines body cavities *such as lungs
4.2 Connective Tissue Connects and Supports
Connective tissue consists of three components (1) specialized cells
(2) ground substance * matrix
(3) protein fibers *Fibers are of three possible types (1) collagen (2) reticular (3) elastic
Fibrous Connective Tissue:
Connective tissues have cells called fibroblasts.
Loose fibrous connective tissue, called areolar tissue supports epithelium and internal organs
Adipose tissue, found beneath the skin, around the kidneys, and surface of heart-the cells are enlarged and store fat
Dense fibrous connective tissue, contains many collagen fibers and has very specific functions within body- found in tendons and ligiments
Supportive Connective Tissue:
There are three types of Cartilage
Hyaline
Elastic
Fibrocartilage
Cartilage cells have no direct blood flow so healing is very slow. Cells lie in small chambers called lacuna.
Bone:
Bone is the most rigid connective tissue. Compact Bone makes up the shaft of a long bone. Ends of a Long Bone contain Spongy Bone. The spongy bone looks like lattice work, however, is still designed for strength just like the long bone.
Fluid Connective Tissue:
Two types found in the body
(1) blood
(2) lymph
4.3 Muscular Tissue Moves the Body
Muscle tissue is composed of cells called muscle fibers. There are three types of vertebrate muscle tissues.
Skeletal- voluntary muscle *occur in muscles attached to the skeleton
Smooth (Visceral)- involuntary muscle *found in blood vessel walls and the digestive track
Cardiac- involuntary * only found in the heart wall
4.4 Nervous Tissue Communicates
Nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells called neurons and neuroglia.
Neuroglia nourish neurons within the tissue. Neuroglia largely out number neurons.
A neuron is a specialized part of a cell, which consists of three parts:
(1) dendrite- receives signals from sensory receptors
(2) cell body- contains cytoplasm and nucleus
(3) axon- an extension that conducts nerve impulses
Nerves are fibers bound by connective tissue outside of the brain and the spinal cord.
The nervous system has three functions:
Sensory input
Integration of data
Motor output
4.5 Epithelial Tissue Protects
Epithelial tissue consists of tightly packed cells that form continuous layer.
Typically has a protective functions
Exposed to the environment on one side and protested by a basement membrane on the other side
Simple Epithelia has one layer of cells
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium appears to be more than a single layer, but is connected only by a basement membrane
Transitional Epithelium changes to response of tension
Stratified Epithelia has layers of cells piled on top of each other with only the bottom layer joining the basement membrane
Glandular Epithelia (gland) secretes a product
4.6 Cell Junctions
Cell Junctions help a tissue perform their particular function better. Cell Junctions connect epithelia, muscle, and nerve cells.
There are three types of Cell Junctions:
Tight Junctions- impermeable barrier, allow epithelial cells to form a layer
Adhesion Junctions- firmly attach cytoskeletal fibers of one cell to another, common in tissues subject to mechanical stress
Gap Junctions- happen when gaps are left by adjacent plasma membranes, help the heart beat as a coordinated whole
4.7 Integumentary System
The skin has numerous accessory organs, such as the, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands, therefore it is called an, “Integumentary System”
Skin has two regions:
(1)dermis *underneath the surface
(2)epidermis * surface area
There is a Subcutaneous layer located under the dermis that lies between skin and underlying structure
Accessory Organs of the Skin
Nails are a protective covering of fingers and toes
Hair Follicles begin at a bulb in the dermis and continue through the epidermis where the hair shaft extends beyond the skin. Every Hair Follicle has at least one oil gland, (called a sebaceous gland). Sebum is secreted and failure of excretion is the cause of whiteheads, blackheads, and acne.
Sweat Glands *also known as soporiferous glands, numerous and located body wide, have a role in modifying body temperature- when body temperature rises then the sweat gland is activated until body temp starts to lower again
4.8 Organ Systems
Various systems within the body cooperate to maintain homeostasis.
Transport- Cardiovascular and Lymphatic/Immune
Maintenance- Digestive, Respiratory, and Urinary
Control- Nervous and Endocrine
Integumentary- Skin and Accessory organs
Motor- Skeletal and Muscular
Reproduction- Reproduction
The body has two main cavities.
Ventral
Dorsal
Body Membranes line cavities and internal spaces of organs that open to the outside.
Mucous Membrane- line tubes of digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems
Serous Membranes- line and support lungs, heart, and abdominal cavity/internal organs
Synovial Membranes- loose connective tissue lines the cavities of freely moving joints
Meninges Membranes- found within dorsal cavity, serve as protection for brain and the spinal cord * Meningitis is a life threatening infection of the Meninges Membrane.
4.1 Types of Tissue
Tissue is composed of specialized cells of like kind that perform certain function.
There are four categories of tissues (called multi-cellular organisms):
Connective Tissue- binds and supports body parts *such as bones *fibrous, supportive, and fluid
Muscular Tissue- moves the body and it’s parts *skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
Nervous Tissue- receives stimuli and conducts nerve impulses *communicates between cells
Epithelial Tissue- covers body surfaces and lines body cavities *such as lungs
4.2 Connective Tissue Connects and Supports
Connective tissue consists of three components (1) specialized cells
(2) ground substance * matrix
(3) protein fibers *Fibers are of three possible types (1) collagen (2) reticular (3) elastic
Fibrous Connective Tissue:
Connective tissues have cells called fibroblasts.
Loose fibrous connective tissue, called areolar tissue supports epithelium and internal organs
Adipose tissue, found beneath the skin, around the kidneys, and surface of heart-the cells are enlarged and store fat
Dense fibrous connective tissue, contains many collagen fibers and has very specific functions within body- found in tendons and ligiments
Supportive Connective Tissue:
There are three types of Cartilage
Hyaline
Elastic
Fibrocartilage
Cartilage cells have no direct blood flow so healing is very slow. Cells lie in small chambers called lacuna.
Bone:
Bone is the most rigid connective tissue. Compact Bone makes up the shaft of a long bone. Ends of a Long Bone contain Spongy Bone. The spongy bone looks like lattice work, however, is still designed for strength just like the long bone.
Fluid Connective Tissue:
Two types found in the body
(1) blood
(2) lymph
4.3 Muscular Tissue Moves the Body
Muscle tissue is composed of cells called muscle fibers. There are three types of vertebrate muscle tissues.
Skeletal- voluntary muscle *occur in muscles attached to the skeleton
Smooth (Visceral)- involuntary muscle *found in blood vessel walls and the digestive track
Cardiac- involuntary * only found in the heart wall
4.4 Nervous Tissue Communicates
Nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells called neurons and neuroglia.
Neuroglia nourish neurons within the tissue. Neuroglia largely out number neurons.
A neuron is a specialized part of a cell, which consists of three parts:
(1) dendrite- receives signals from sensory receptors
(2) cell body- contains cytoplasm and nucleus
(3) axon- an extension that conducts nerve impulses
Nerves are fibers bound by connective tissue outside of the brain and the spinal cord.
The nervous system has three functions:
Sensory input
Integration of data
Motor output
4.5 Epithelial Tissue Protects
Epithelial tissue consists of tightly packed cells that form continuous layer.
Typically has a protective functions
Exposed to the environment on one side and protested by a basement membrane on the other side
Simple Epithelia has one layer of cells
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium appears to be more than a single layer, but is connected only by a basement membrane
Transitional Epithelium changes to response of tension
Stratified Epithelia has layers of cells piled on top of each other with only the bottom layer joining the basement membrane
Glandular Epithelia (gland) secretes a product
4.6 Cell Junctions
Cell Junctions help a tissue perform their particular function better. Cell Junctions connect epithelia, muscle, and nerve cells.
There are three types of Cell Junctions:
Tight Junctions- impermeable barrier, allow epithelial cells to form a layer
Adhesion Junctions- firmly attach cytoskeletal fibers of one cell to another, common in tissues subject to mechanical stress
Gap Junctions- happen when gaps are left by adjacent plasma membranes, help the heart beat as a coordinated whole
4.7 Integumentary System
The skin has numerous accessory organs, such as the, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands, therefore it is called an, “Integumentary System”
Skin has two regions:
(1)dermis *underneath the surface
(2)epidermis * surface area
There is a Subcutaneous layer located under the dermis that lies between skin and underlying structure
Accessory Organs of the Skin
Nails are a protective covering of fingers and toes
Hair Follicles begin at a bulb in the dermis and continue through the epidermis where the hair shaft extends beyond the skin. Every Hair Follicle has at least one oil gland, (called a sebaceous gland). Sebum is secreted and failure of excretion is the cause of whiteheads, blackheads, and acne.
Sweat Glands *also known as soporiferous glands, numerous and located body wide, have a role in modifying body temperature- when body temperature rises then the sweat gland is activated until body temp starts to lower again
4.8 Organ Systems
Various systems within the body cooperate to maintain homeostasis.
Transport- Cardiovascular and Lymphatic/Immune
Maintenance- Digestive, Respiratory, and Urinary
Control- Nervous and Endocrine
Integumentary- Skin and Accessory organs
Motor- Skeletal and Muscular
Reproduction- Reproduction
The body has two main cavities.
Ventral
Dorsal
Body Membranes line cavities and internal spaces of organs that open to the outside.
Mucous Membrane- line tubes of digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems
Serous Membranes- line and support lungs, heart, and abdominal cavity/internal organs
Synovial Membranes- loose connective tissue lines the cavities of freely moving joints
Meninges Membranes- found within dorsal cavity, serve as protection for brain and the spinal cord * Meningitis is a life threatening infection of the Meninges Membrane.
4.9 Homeostasis
“Homeostasis is the bodies ability to maintain a relative constancy of its internal environment by adjustments in the physiological processes.”
“Physiologic Mechanisms respond to disturbances that limit the amount of internal change”.
Nervous system and endocrine system are important coordinators of the other organs and their abilities of maintaining Homeostasis.
These two systems direct other system activities to maintain Homeostasis.
The blood glucose level is important factor in Homeostasis process.
Homeostasis Mechanisms can fail within the body * low insulin production leads to diabetes.
All systems in the body contribute to Homeostasis as follows:
Nervous system- regulates/coordinates activities of all the other systems
Cardiovascular system- transports oxygen and nutrients to tissue cells
Digestive system- supplies blood with nutrients and water in tissue
Muscular system- produces heat that maintains body temperature
Endocrine system- secrete hormones and regulates activities of other systems
Respiratory system,- supplies blood with oxygen for tissue cells
Urinary system- excretes wastes
Lymphatic system- helps maintain blood volume by collection of excess tissue fluid
Integumentary system- helps maintain body temperature and protects internal organs
Negative Feedback- homeostasis mechanism that keep body level balanced- sensor detection in the internal environment leads to control center change that then leads back to original balance of homeostasis.
“Homeostasis is the bodies ability to maintain a relative constancy of its internal environment by adjustments in the physiological processes.”
“Physiologic Mechanisms respond to disturbances that limit the amount of internal change”.
Nervous system and endocrine system are important coordinators of the other organs and their abilities of maintaining Homeostasis.
These two systems direct other system activities to maintain Homeostasis.
The blood glucose level is important factor in Homeostasis process.
Homeostasis Mechanisms can fail within the body * low insulin production leads to diabetes.
All systems in the body contribute to Homeostasis as follows:
Nervous system- regulates/coordinates activities of all the other systems
Cardiovascular system- transports oxygen and nutrients to tissue cells
Digestive system- supplies blood with nutrients and water in tissue
Muscular system- produces heat that maintains body temperature
Endocrine system- secrete hormones and regulates activities of other systems
Respiratory system,- supplies blood with oxygen for tissue cells
Urinary system- excretes wastes
Lymphatic system- helps maintain blood volume by collection of excess tissue fluid
Integumentary system- helps maintain body temperature and protects internal organs
Negative Feedback- homeostasis mechanism that keep body level balanced- sensor detection in the internal environment leads to control center change that then leads back to original balance of homeostasis.
Negative Mechanism occurs when “the output of the system dampens the original stimulus”.
Positive Feedback- mechanism that brings about greater change in the same direction-example is cervix expansion during child birth * the cervix continues to be more stimulated as contractions occur and the head pushes against the cervix.
Positive Feedback- mechanism that brings about greater change in the same direction-example is cervix expansion during child birth * the cervix continues to be more stimulated as contractions occur and the head pushes against the cervix.
My Final Thought on What I've Learned:
From these four chapters that focused mainly on cells, I learned alot of information. Absorbing most of the fine details was difficult for me but I came away with a deeper understanding of cells and the true miracle of their nature. I have gained a deeper appreciation for "the living cell". The chapters gave me alot of information on cell structure, cell formation, how cells and the parts of the cells work, and how cell systems work together as part of a bigger "whole". I find it to be amazing that within a single cell there is virtually an entire micro-world in full operation! Wow, when I really stop and think about how are bodies are put together, with cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems, I am in awe of the complexity as well as the beautiful simplicity of it all!
